Vickipedia

Under the head ICE, some notice is given of machines by which it can be prepared artificially; but as the practical importance of refrigerating apparatus is daily increasing, we propose to give here a fuller sketch of one or two kinds. The ice-making machine of Carre & Co., of Paris, being one of the simplest and best of those which produce cold by the evaporation of some volatile liquid, we shall describe it first. It is shown in figures 1 and 2, and consists of two strong cast-iron cylinders A and B, connected together by a metal tube T, all perfectly gas-tight. The whole apparatus is made strong enough to stand seven or eight atmospheres of internal pressure.

The cylinder A is charged with an aqueous solution of ammoniacal gas. Ammonia is a powerful absorber of heat, and is, moreover, so extremely soluble in water that the latter takes up nearly seven hundred times its volume of the gas. Air is completely expelled from the apparatus by opening a screw valve and heating” the cylinder. It is then ready for use. On applying heat to the: cylinder A (fig. 1), which fits into a small stove for the purpose, the solution of ammonia is volatilized, and carried over and condensed in the cylinder B, which is placed in a vessel containing: cold water. The heat reaches to about 220° F., and while it is being applied, the volatilized ammonia condenses into a liquid under very high pressure, produced by its own atmosphere, in the cold cylinder B. When the heating is gone on long enough — about half-an-hour for a small machine — the hot cylinder. A, is removed from the fire, and placed in a vessel of cold water, as shown in fig. 2. The cooling of this cylinder immediately causes the reabsorption, by the removal of the pressure, of the condensed ammonia from the other cylinder B; and as it passes again from the liquid to the gaseous state, intense cold is produced (see HEAT), and, in consequence, heat abstracted from everything in contact with this portion of the apparatus.

The cold cylinder B is shown in section in fig. 2. It is so constructed that the ammonia is contained in an outer jacket, leaving-a hollow space in the center. When ice is to be made, the latter is filled with salt water or other liquid which does not freeze at 32° F., and into this is placed a loosely fitting metal cylinder D, containing the water to be frozen. In this way, with a small machine for domestic purposes, a few pounds of ice can be made in an hour or two; but large machines, on the same principle, are made which produce 440 Ibs. of ice per hour.

There is a well-known refrigerating machine by Mr. D. Siebe of London, in which ether is used as the volatile fluid, its evaporation being produced not by heat, but by the action of an air-pump; the necessary cold is produced in the surrounding brine as the ether passes into vapor.

M. Pictet of Geneva has invented an ice-machine which works with anhydrous sulphurous acid instead -of ether; but otherwise his process somewhat resembles Siebe’s. It is now at work at an Ice-making Company’s works in King’s Road, Chelsea. Some machines are also in use which produce ice by means of freezing mixtures; but they are of minor importance.

Mr. A. C. Kirk, late of the Bathgate Chemical Works, undertook, a few years ago, a series of experiments with a view to the construction of such an apparatus which would produce cold by the simple expansion and compression of air. He ultimately succeeded in producing an ingenious machine, which he patented on the 25th April 1862, the number of the specification being 1218.

Although it is not strictly true that the mere rarefaction of air produces cold, yet it will simplify the explanation of this machine to assume in the meantime that it does so. Its simplest

form is shown in fig. 3, and consists of a cylinder with a piston to compress air, communicating with another cylinder containing a kind of piston or plunger where the compressed air is cooled and expanded. The machine is driven by a steam-engine, audit may be as well to remark, that the actual relative position of the cylinders is different from that shown in the diagram, which is given rather to show the principle of the apparatus than as an accurate representation of it.

The compressed air is forced by the compressing cylinder A, into the refrigerating cylinder BB, just at the moment when the position of the plunger, PP, is close upon the upper cone D. This air, which fills the space aa, between the plunger PP, and, the lower cone E, is of course heated by the compression; and order to cool it again, cold water is made to calculate in the coil E, by an entrance-pipe F, and an exit-pipe at G. The next movement of the machine draws the piston in the cylinder A to the opposite end, and consequently allows the compressed air to expand again; but at the same moment the plunger, PP, descends close upon the cone E, thus allowing the space between the plunger and the upper cone D. to be at its fullest when the expansion of the enclosed air is at its greatest.

By this arrangement, the patentees secures that the air while being compressed will always be at the lower, or what he calls the hot end, of the refrigerating cylinder B; and while being expanded, it will always be at the upper or cold end. There is a regenerator constructed as in the Caloric Engine (q. v.) of wire-gauze, placed in the middle of the plunger at C. This, while it allows the air to move freely through it, prevents the conveyance of heat or cold from one end of the cylinder to the other. The plunger, PP, is filled internally with sawdust or some non-conducting material.

We may now explain that the low temperature of the air which surrounds the cone D during expansion, is not produced by simple rarefaction. That alone would not produce cold. It is necessary as well to abstract heat from the air by giving it some work to do, and here it unavoidably does work, in assisting to force back the piston of the compressing cylinder, while in the act of expanding. The air loses an equivalent of heat exactly in proportion to the amount of force which it expends in moving, or in assisting to move, the piston. See FORCE.

Before air is admitted into the cylinder, it is necessary to dry it thoroughly, by first passing it through a box containing chloride of calcium, because, if any moisture were present, it would freeze in the regenerator, and stop the action of the machine. In the particular form of the apparatus shown in the figure, the substance to be cooled is placed inside the cone D, which is furnished with a lid L. Here not only water, but even mercury, can be frozen with facility.

Most of the machines of this kind which have as yet been made were required for working on a more extensive scale than the one shown in fig. 3 could easily do. In the larger-sized machines, accordingly, instead of one hollow cone like D (fig. 3), a series of circular V-shaped corrugations are fixed to the top cover of the refrigerating cylinder. These form annular passages, through which a continuous current of some fluid not easily frozen, such as brine, flows. This is of course cooled by the expanded air (in the manner already explained) at the cold end of the cylinder, and can be conveyed away in pipes. The most serious objection to this method was its comparative cost.

The increasing imports of dead meat from America gave a new impulse to the improvement of refrigerating processes. The meat chambers were at first cooled by means of currents of air forced over and between ice-blocks. This method kept the air perpetually moist, and produced somewhat deleterious effects on the meat. The Messrs. Bell of Glasgow secured the assistance of Mr. J. J. Coleman, who perfected a purely mechanical refrigerator known as the Bell-Coleman machine. This apparatus has a good deal in common with Kirk’s. The air is taken from the meat chamber and greatly compressed, being played upon the while by small jets of water, in order to abstract the heat developed during pressure. It next circulates through a series of tubes where it is further cooled, and deposits great part of its moisture. The next stage is the expansion process; and by being constrained during expansion to perform a certain amount of j mechanical work in turning cranks, it further loses heat. It is now found to be a powerful refrigerating agent. Machines on the Bell-Coleman principle have been fitted up in many lines of ocean steamers, and have rendered possible the transmission from America, Australia, and New Zealand, enormous quantities of beef and mutton in perfect condition. It is also used for stationary refrigerators in hot countries. For the Haslam machine it is claimed that the air from it is drier than from that of Mr. Coleman.

The ether-machine of Siddeley & Mackay of Liverpool, which is an improvement en Siebe’s, is now a good deal used for making ice, and for other purposes. In it a steam-engine is employed to work two vacuum-pumps, and to supply motive-power to other parts of the apparatus. The refrigerating vessels contain thin pipes, through-which brine or chloride of calcium flows. Ether surrounds these pipes; and under the reduced pressure produced by vacuum-pumps, with which the refrigerators communicate, a portion of the ether evaporates, producing cold in the act of doing so, as already explained. The ether vapor is then condensed at a slight pressure, cooled by a stream of cold water, and returned to the refrigerator. Reece’s ammonia machine is more recent than Carre’s, and is worked with anhydrous ammonia, instead of an aqueous solution of it. In Reece’s process, less fuel is required to distil the ammonia, less water to condense it, and less power to work the moving parts of the machine.

It is only within the last twenty years that much attention has been given to the construction of machines for the production of artificial cold on the large scale; but they have already received several important applications. In this country, besides being available for the production of ice; the extraction of certain salts from mixed solutions, such as sulphate of soda from common salt —the former separating at a temperature above that which keeps I the latter in solution; the separation of paraffin from mineral foils; and in other chemical operations, as well as for cooling worts in breweries and distilleries, they are now turned to good account in bringing fresh meat from distant countries to our shores. In warm countries, besides other uses, they could be applied to cool large hospitals and public buildings, by sending a current of some cold liquid through pipes, just as we in Great Britain heat building with pipes through which hot water flows.

RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL, is required in all cases of suspended animation, from drowning, noxious gases, chloroform, &c. It may be performed either by forcing air into the lungs by means of a pipe passed through the mouth or the nostril into the glottis, or (which is usually preferable) by imitating the natural expansion of the chest by muscular effort, as by the methods invented by the late Dr. Marshall Hall and by Dr. Sylvester.

The best mode of forcing air into the lungs is by the use of a small pair of bellows, with the nozzle inserted in one of the patient’s nostrils. The air should be driven into the lungs with extreme gentleness, the larynx being pressed backwards against the spine, so that the air may not go into the œsophagus and stomach. Gentle but firm pressure must be then applied to the chest to expel the introduced air, and fresh air again driven in; and this process of introducing and expelling the air alternately must be continued until either natural respiratory efforts appear, or the case becomes hopeless.

In the article ASPHYXIA, it is stated that one of the best methods of filling the lungs of an asphyxiated person with fresh air, is that of Dr. Marshall Hall. Dr. Sylvester’s method (The True Physiological Method of Restoring Persons apparently Drowned or Dead, and of Resuscitating Still-born Children; London, 1859) is, however, generally regarded as decidedly preferable to that of Dr. Marshall Hall, although the same in principle. The following are Dr. Sylvester’s rules, as slightly modified by a committee, whose investigations will be presently noticed. The patient is laid on his back on a plane, inclined a little from the feet up- wards; the shoulders are gently raised by a firm cushion being placed under them; the tongue is brought forward, so as to project a. little from the side of the mouth. The operator then grasps the patient’s arms just above the elbows, and raises them till they nearly meet above the head. This action imitates inspiration. The patient’s arms are then turned down, and firmly pressed for a moment against the sides of the chest. A deep expiration is thus imitated; and these two sets of movements should be perseveringly continued at the rate of about 15 times in a minute.

Special reference must be made to two important documents among the publications on this subject. The first of these is the Reports of the Scientific Committee on Suspended Animation, presented to the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London in July 1862; and when it is stated that this Report was signed by *C. J. B. Williams, Chairman, W. S. Kirkes, George Harley, J. B. Sanderson, C. E. Brown Sequard, H. Hyde Salter, E. H. Sieveking, and W. S. Savory, Honorary Secretary,’ its scientific claims to our attention are undeniable. The following are their suggestions in relation to treatment: 1. That all obstruction to the passage of air to and from the lungs be at once, so far as is practicable, removed; that the mouth and nostrils, e. g. be cleansed from all foreign matters or adherent mucus. 2. That in the absence of natural respiration, artificial respiration by Dr. Sylvester’s method (as already described) should be employed. 3. That if no natural respiratory efforts supervene, a dash of hot water (120° Fah.) or cold water be employed, for the purpose of exciting respiratory efforts. 4. That the temperature of the body be maintained by friction, warm blankets, the warm bath, &c. [Whether the warm bath is serviceable or positively hurtful is, however, still an open question]; and 5. That in the case of drowning, in addition to the foregoing suggestions, the following plan may, in the first instance, be practiced: Place the body with the face downwards, and hanging a little over the edge of a table, shutter, or board, raised at an angle of about 30°. so that the head may be lower than the feet. Open the mouth, and draw the tongue forward. Keep the body in this posture for a few seconds, or a little longer if fluid escapes. The escape of fluid may be assisted by pressing once or twice upon the back.

The other document to which we referred is entitled Instructions for the Restoration of the apparently Dead from Drowning, and was issued in 1864 by ‘The National Lifeboat Institution.’ In these Instructions (a copy of which should be in the possession of every family), it is recommended, that if breathing cannot be excited by the application of stimulants to the nostrils, or by dashing-water on the face, Marshall Hall’s method should be tried; and that if this do not prove successful in from two to five minutes, Dr. Sylvester’s method should be resorted to.

In conclusion, a reference must also be made to the Reports of the Scientific Committee [of the members of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society] on the Uses and Effects of Chloroform. The committee decide that the most certain means of restoring life after poisoning with anæsthetics is by artificial respiration. ‘By this means, resuscitating may generally be accomplished after natural respiration has ceased, provided the heart continue to act; and it ma3r sometimes be effected even after the cessation of the heart’s action. Galvanism resuscitates within the same limits as artificial respiration; it is, however, far less to be relied on in equal cases. Galvanism maybe used in addition to artificial respiration; but the latter is on no account to be delayed or suspended, in order that galvanism maybe tried.’—Proceedings of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, vol. iv.

LIGHTING OF BEACONS AND BUOYS AT SEA. The plan hitherto generally in use for illuminating a rock or reef where no light-house could be built is by means of an ‘ apparent light,’ as in the case of a reef at Stornoway (see LIGHTHOUSE). Of late, trial has extensively and successfully been made of electricity for this purpose. At various times since the discovery of the electric light by Sir H. Davy in 1813, suggestions have been made pointing out the advantages which might be derived from its use upon light-houses. It has long been plain, indeed, that for a purpose of this kind it had properties which placed it far in advance of all other lights-such as its near approach to sunlight in brightness, its great power of penetrating fogs, and its total independence of atmospheric air, which enables it to be produced in a vacuum or under water. Unfortunately its production is attended with great trouble; it also requires rare skill to keep it in perfect order, and even where this is at hand, we cannot yet place absolute reliance upon its steadiness. It has nevertheless been in use at Dungeness, in the south of England, since 1863; and has been introduced with success at Souter Point, Tynemouth (1871), at South Foreland (1878), and at the Lizard light-house (1878). It is used also at three French light-houses, at Odessa, and at Port Said at the entrance of the Suez Canal. At Souter Point the rearward rays of the light are reflected downwards, and used as a light in i different direction on a lower level. Whether or not the electric light is to be ultimately adopted for properly constructed lighthouses, there can be little doubt that for the illumination of beacons, where no light-keeper is on the spot, electricity would be a most desirable agent to produce the light. As far as can be at present seen, the ordinary Electric Light (q. v.) may be dismissed as unsuitable for beacons. It will at least require to be greatly simplified before it can be used for such a purpose. In the article INDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS will be found a description of the method of producing sparks by means of an induction coil. These sparks can be made to follow each other so quickly as to appear like a flash surrounded by a luminous haze. Taking advantage of this power of electricity, Mr. Thomas Stevenson proposed in 1866 to apply it to the illumination of beacons, and in that year a series of interesting experiments were made at New-haven pier, with the aid of instruments constructed by Mr. Hart of Edinburgh. Although up till this time no further steps have been taken to make practical application of this suggestion, the proposal merits attention for its ingenious application of a scientific fact which had not as yet been successfully put to such a use. In the experiments referred to, the electric current passed through a wire 800 feet long. Suppose a beacon to be situated at some distance from the shore, as shown upon the annexed diagram (fig. 1).

A galvanic battery, consisting of, say, six Bunsen cells, is placed at B in a house upon the shore. From this, the electrical current is conveyed along a submarine cable to the beacon, and returns by earth-plates at E, E, in the usual manner, to complete the circuit; its course being indicated on the diagram by arrows. The induction coil is placed upon the beacon at C. and properly connected with the conducting wire of the cable, so as to make the current generated by the battery traverse its primary coil. A wire from each end of its secondary coil is then conveyed to the focus of the optical apparatus, the ends of the two wires being here brought within half-an-inch of each other, and furnished with indestructible points of platinum. The induced or secondary current, in crossing this narrow space, produces the succession of sparks which constitute the light, but as explained under the head INDUCTION OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS, it only does so at the moment the current is interrupted or broken. It is consequently necessary to have some means of completing and breaking the galvanic circuit in rapid alternations, so as to produce the flashes in quick succession. The break for this purpose is placed at I, near the battery.

In the experiments now described, a great deal was found to depend upon the peculiar way the current was broken. None of the breaks in use giving a successful result, Mr. Halt devised a new one of an ingenious construction, which produced a more constant and powerful light. Fig. 2 shows this instrument.

The difference between it and other mercury or spring breaks lies in the fact, that with them the current is off and on for nearly equal spaces of time; but this one is so contrived that the wire at a is three times longer in the mercury, J, than it is out of it; consequently, the current is three times longer on than it is off, and so-allows the soft iron core of the induction coil to be more fully magnetized. The result of this is a secondary current of comparatively high intensity, and of course the production of more brilliant sparks between its two terminals. We may explain, that the moment the wire at a touches the mercury, the current passes and the moment it is removed the current stops-the direction it takes being indicated in the figure by the arrows. The wire at ” alternately dips and rises by the action of an ordinary electromagnet, EE, turning the crank e; the second bottle of mercury is not used to break contact, but only to continue the current, for which a spring would answer as well.

By the use of more than one induction coil, the light could be materially increased, so that there seemed a likelihood of being able to produce it powerful enough to be seen at the distance of a few miles. Another method of lighting buoys as well as beacons without the aid of electricity has lately been shown to be practicable. Coal or other inflammable gas can be so compressed that a buoy may be made to receive at once and store up as much condensed gas as will suffice to keep a steady flame burning for a month or more. Gas for this purpose can be economically manufactured from some of the waste products of shale-oil works. Mr. Stevenson has also suggested the employment of electricity to ring bells, so as to give warning to sailors in foggy weather.

SWEARING, PROFANE, according to the law of England, is an offense for which the party may be convicted by a justice of the peace according to a scale of penalties. A day laborer, a common soldier, sailor, or seaman forfeits 1s. per oath; every other person under the degree of gentleman, 2s.; and every person of the degree above gentleman, 5s.—for a second offense, double these sums; for a third, treble, &c. If the cursing take place in presence of a justice of the peace, the latter may convict the swearer then and there, without further proces or evidence; and in all cases a constable may apprehend a profane swearer; and carry him before a justice. On a recent occasion, a man swore a volley of oaths, twenty times repeating the oath, and the justices fined him 2s. for each repetition, making in all £2, and this was held a proper conviction. The justice of the peace in Scotland have a similar jurisdiction intrusted to them, to convict of profane swearing, and fine according to the rank of the party.

MASTER AND SERVANT. The relation of master and servant is constituted in Great Britain entirely by contract; for there being-no status of slavery recognized in law, one person can only serve another with his or her own free consent. Being a mere contract, it may, like other contracts, be broken at will, subject only to the will consequence, that the party in the wrong is liable to pay damages for the breach. In England and Ireland, the engagement or hiring of a servant may be either verbal or in writing; but if the engagement is for more than one year, it must be in writing. If for an indefinite time, no writing is necessary. When a servant continues in the service after the first year, a renewal of the contract is presumed on the same terms. Sometimes is difficult to say whether an engagement of an indefinite kind is bythe year, or by the month or week; in such cases, a material fact is how the wages were to be paid, for if they are paid weekly, the presumption will be that the hiring was by the week, unless there are other circumstances to show that a yearly hiring was meant. The difference between a yearly contract and a weekly one is, that if the servant is discharged without cause during the year, he is entitled towages up to the end of the year; and on the other hand, if he leave without cause during the service, he is entitled to no wages at all.

A servant undertakes to have competent skill for the duties of the service, and is bound to use due diligence, and to conduct himself respectfully. He is bound to obey all lawful orders of his master during the engagement, if they are within the scope of the particular service for which he was engaged. Thus, a coachman is not bound to do the duties of a cook, and vice versa. Every servant is bound to take due care of his master’s property, and he is liable to an action at the suit of his master for gross negligence, and also for fraud and misfeasance. A master is not entitled to chastise a servant, whatever the age of the servant : maybe, though, in the case of an apprentice under age, a moderate chastisement is justifiable. The grounds on which a servant may be lawfully discharged are wilful disobedience, gross immorality, habitual negligence, and incompetence. If any person entice away a servant, and thereby cause loss to the master, the latter may sue such person for the injury. If the servant is a female, and is seduced, and thereby is unable to continue her service, the master may also bring an action against the seducer for any loss of service caused thereby; and on the same principle a master may bring an action against a third party who causes personal injury to the servant. In the case of the bankruptcy of the master, a preference is given to the servant’s wages if due and unpaid, but this extends only to two months’ wages, and the servant is an ordinary creditor for the balance beyond that sum. The death of the master is a discharge of the contract; and in many cases, the servant is not entitled to recover wages for the time actually served, though there is an exception as to domestic ” servants. If a servant is rightfully discharged, he is not entitled to wages for the broken time since the previous periodical payment of wages; and so in the case of the servant’s death during the currency of the term, the servant’s executors cannot recover payment for the broken time; but it is otherwise in the case of domestic servants. When a servant falls sick, the master is not bound to provide medical attendance whether the servant lives wider bis roof or not; but as in such cases a doctor is often sent for by the master without any express understanding between the parties, the master is frequently made liable on the ground that the doctor was sent for by and gave credit to the master.

As a general rule, the servant takes the risk of all the ordinary accidents attending the particular service; if he suffered from an accident met with in the course of the service, the master was not till lately liable for the consequences, unless there wag some personal negligence on his part. The law in such cases has been much changed by the passing of the Employers’ Liability Act of 1880. Now the workman or, if the injury results in death, his legal personal representatives, shall have the same right of compensation and remedies against the employer as if he had not been in the employer’s service, in the following cases : If the workman suffer injury by reason of defect in the employer’s works or machinery or plant; by the negligence of any other superior workman; by the negligence of “any other servant in charge of locomotives or signal-points. Where a servant injures a third party, the rule remains, that the master is liable, if the servant at :lie time was acting within the scope of the master’s orders, expressed or implied. Hence, if a coachman carelessly run down a person on the highway, or do injury to another, the master is liable; but if the coachman was driving the master’s carriage without or contrary to the orders of the master, the servant alone is liable. So the master is not in any way responsible for the crimes or criminal offences committed by his servant; yet sometimes he s involved in fines. The above are the general rules as regards servants generally; but in England there is a distinction in many instances observed between domestic servants and other servants. The leading distinction is, that if nothing is said as to the length of service, it is presumed that the service can be terminated at any time, on giving a month’s notice on either side, or in case of the discharge of a domestic servant without notice, then on payment of a month’s wages. It is often popularly thought that a domestic servant cannot be turned out of the master’s house at a moment’s notice, even on paying a month’s wages, but this can always be done with or without cause. In case of discharge without cause, the servant is entitled to a mouth’s wages, but not board wages; she also gets wages only up to the master’s death. He is not compelled to give a character to the servant; it is entirely optional; but if he does so, then it must be a true one, otherwise an action will lie for defamation. But if a master without malice, and acting bonafide, gives an untrue character, he is not liable, for the communication is held to be privileged. If a master knowingly give a false character to a servant who is engaged by a third party on the faith of it, and robs such third party, the latter can sue the former master for the damages. Persons personating masters, and giving false characters, and servants using such false characters, are liable to be summarily convicted, and fined £20.

In general, a servant, if he refuse to enter the service, or leave it without cause, is merely liable to an action of damages for breach of contract, which is no remedy at all, as few servants are worth the expense of a suit. As this conduct, however, might often cause great hardship to masters, especially where they are employed in trade or manufactures, statutes have been passed which give a power to justices of the peace to compel the servant to remain in the service until he give the legal notice to leave. This was formerly done by punishing the servant who left the service without just cause by imprisonment. This law, complained of by workmen as one-sided, was modified by the Employers and Workmen Act (1875), which gives County Courts enlarged powers in regard to payment of money, rescission of contract, and taking of security as between employers and workmen; and by the Conspiracy Act (1875), which, while deciding that in trade disputes no combination shall be indictable if the act contemplated done by one person would not be so, makes special criminal provision in case of persons, employed by gas and water companies.

In Scotland, the law as to master and servant differs from the above in several particulars, of which the following are the most important. With regard to domestic servants, in towns, if nothing is said, then the hiring is for half a year, and cannot be put an end to without forty days’ warning before the end of the half year; and if the servant is dismissed without just cause, he or she can claim not only wages but board-wages till the end of the term. In case of the master’s death, the servant can claim wages for the whole of the current term, but is bound in that case to serve the executors, or look out for another situation. In case of the master’s bankruptcy, the servant is a privileged debtor for the wages of the current term. In most other respects, the law as to servants is the same as in England. The statutes enabling justices of the peace to imprison defaulting workmen and artificers, have been modified.

The Act 30 and 81 Vict. c. 141, called the Master and Servant Act, 1867, having caused profound dissatisfaction amongst workmen, a Royal Commission was appointed to investigate and report. The first two sections were found to be objectionable because they conferred a power to inflict simple imprisonment as the penalty for breaking a purely civil contract. The 14th section was found to be equally open to objection, as it authorized imprisonment for three months, with hard labor, in cases of an exaggerated character. Upon the above report are based the existing Acts—the Employers and Workmen’s Act (38 and 39 Vict. c. 90) and the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act (id. c. 86)—which repeal that of 1867, and came into force on September 1, 1875. The first Act, which is divided into five parts, empowers County Courts, in respect of disputes between employer? and workmen to make orders of payment of money; to set off one claim against another, whether liquidated or unliquidated; to rescind any contract, and to accept in room of damages security for so much of the contract as remains unperformed. A Court of Summary Jurisdiction may exercise all the powers as above when the sum in dispute is under £10. Disputes between master and apprentice may also here be tried as to indentures or contracts. The term ‘workman’ in this Act does not include a domestic or menial servant, but any person engaged in manual labor, under or above 21 years of age, who has entered into, or works under a contract for his employer. It does not apply to seamen or apprentices to the sea service. The second, or Conspiracy Act, in relation to trade disputes, declares that in an agreement or combination of two or more persons they cannot be indicted for conspiracy to do that which, if done by any one singly, would not be punishable .is a crime. This does not exempt from punishment any conspiracy punishable by Act of Parliament, nor alter the law as to riot or unlawful assembly. But crime under this section is defined as an offence punishable either on indictment or summarily, by imprisonment, either absolutely or as an alternative for some other punishment. The imprisonment is limited to three months. Workmen breaking a contract in connection with the supply of gas or water, are liable to conviction either summarily or on indictment, and the offence is punishable by a fine of £20, or imprisonment for three months, with or without hard labor. Wilful breach of contract or of hiring, with the probable consequences of danger to human life, incurs a penalty of £20, or imprisonment for three months with or without hard labor. Should a master who is legally liable for the provision of food, clothing, &c., of a servant or apprentice neglect to do so, he incurs a penalty not exceeding £20. The offender may object to be tried and may be indicted. The parties, and their husbands and wives, are competent witnesses. In Scotland, proceedings may be on indictment either in Justiciary or Sheriff Court.