Vickipedia

ANIMAL MAGNETISM, MESMERISM, or HYPNOTISM. From time immemorial, Egyptian conjurers and sorcerers have been accustomed to produce artificial somnambulism, usually by inducing their subject to gaze intently for a few minutes at certain cabalistic signs marked on the center of a white plate. The Yogins, a Hindu sect, also practise similar arts; while the peculiar states of trance or ecstasy into which the Mount Athos monks and other religious fanatics were accustomed to throw themselves, are of kindred nature. So too, many allusions in the works of classical authors relate to phenomena more or less of this kind.

About the middle of the 17th c., while the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism were attracting considerable attention, one Valentine Greatrakes, in London, professed to cure diseases by stroking with the hand. A century later, Gassner, a Swabian priest, employed a similar mode of treating disease, which he ascribed to demoniacal possession. About 1774, Mesmer, a Viennese physician, commenced to treat diseased organs by the application of artificial magnets. The phenomena exhibited by his patients, especially the more nervous of them, led him to adopt the view that the magnets operated not as special sources of influence, but as conductors of a magnetic fluid which he could communicate at will to the patient, even at a distance. Four years later, he commenced practice in Paris, with great success. His usual methods were to seat his patient with his back to the north, to press the pit of the stomach and make passes with his hands in front of his face, meanwhile fixing his patient’s eye, and soothing him by the aid of music. Sometimes too he placed his patients in connection with ‘ magnetized’ trees, or set them in a circle around a covered vessel from which he professed to conduct the invisible fluid, thus inducing peculiar nervous conditions. In 1785 a Royal Commission was appointed to examine Mesmer’s pretensions. These investigators found that the same phenomena could be produced in Mesmer’s more nervous patients when blindfolded, by merely inducing them to suppose themselves in the neighborhood of any of Mesmer’s magnetic appliances, though none were really present ; while conversely, magnets and magnetic tree were alike powerless, if the patient were kept unaware of their proximity. The Marquis de Puysegur at the same time discovered that he could induce artificial somnambulism without the aid of magnets, by passes alone ; but unfortunately for further investigation, the subject fell into the hands of the arch-quack, Cagliostro (q. v.), and thus became extremely discredited by physiologists. Despite the unfavorable report of the French Commission of 1785, as well as of a later one in 1831, and other subsequent exposures, vague theories of magnetic influence, odylic force, new imponderable substance, electrobiology, or the like, kept constantly recurring, since science had nothing with which to replace them, until the investigations of James Braid, a Scottish surgeon settled in Manchester. In 1841 he went to a mesmeric seance, which seemed to him a mere triumph of imposture over credulity; but returning on another occasion to watch the details more narrowly, he was struck to find that the patient was really unable to keep his eyes open. After some reflection, he concluded that by continuous staring, the eyes with their nerve centers became fatigued, and the balance of the nervous system was thus destroyed. Resorting to experiment, he at once succeeded in throwing his servant and others into thorough mesmeric sleep by simply inducing them to gaze intently for a few minutes at the mouth of a bottle placed above, but close to the eyes. He thus proved the absolute dependence of the mesmeric phenomena upon the physiological condition of the patient, not on that of the operator ; and found that he had henceforth to deal with a new order of cerebral states, henceforth to be classed with those of sleep, somnambulism, and insanity. He therefore proposed the word hypnotism, which now so advantageously replaces the terms animal magnetism and mesmerism. Braid continued to investigate the subject with great thoroughness and success for some years, and attempted the treatment of certain diseases by inducing hypnotism. Unfortunately, however, the evil reputation which the subject had so naturally obtained, prevented the due appreciation of Braid’s discoveries, and it was not until about 1875 that the subject commenced to be thoroughly investigated by physiologists. Preyer and Heidenhain in Germany, and Richet in Prance, have confirmed and extended Braid’s results, and we may therefore briefly sum up their results, premising that no scientific observer has ever confirmed the statements of mesmerists as to clairvoyance, reading of sealed letters, influence on unconscious persons at a distance, or the like; and, as above stated, the influence of the mesmerizer is unnecessary, and in all cases unimportant.

The physiological changes which are set up are usually as follows: A spasm of the accommodating apparatus first takes place, the pupils meanwhile dilating, and the eye-balls being protruded, while the eyelids droop. Respiration and circulation become greatly accelerated, and perspiration frequently ensues. Finally, profound stupor may ensue. A very remarkable degree of insensibility to pain exists, so that even surgical operations may sometimes be performed as well as under chloroform. The reflex irritability of all the voluntary muscles is greatly increased (indeed for days after the experiment), so that stroking an area of skin produces a spasm of the subjacent muscles, which may even spread over the whole body, producing a perfectly cataleptic rigidity, so that Heidenhain indeed considers the hypnotic state as nothing more than an artificially produced catalepsy. These considerations indicate the danger of repeatedly subjecting the same person to hypnotic experiments, lest the abnormal state should be rendered permanent. Moreover, since in some persons the hypnotic state begins with general convulsions, the non-medical reader is warned against attempting to hypnotize.

During hypnotism, consciousness is diminished or dormant. The patient may, if only slightly affected, remember what has happened; if more fully hypnotized, he has no remembrance of his actions until hints are given; in the most complete state, he has no remembrance whatever.

In hypnosis, however, sensory perceptions take place; but these are not converted into conscious ideas—in other words (as constantly happens in a ‘ brown study’), the sensation is present, but the power of directing the attention towards it is temporarily lost. Reflex action, however, goes on all the more freely in the absence of the inhibiting will; and thus movements made before a hypnotized person are perceived by the imperfectly closed eyes, and the stimulation of the organ of sense sets up a material change in the central nervous system, which liberates movements, apparently voluntary, yet not really so. Thus the patient may be induced to imitate every movement, however absurd or trivial, which is presented to him. The tendency to mimicry, so common, especially in children, monkeys, parrots, Ac., is thus intensified, or rather the stimulus of the sensory impression is allowed to work unchecked.

As sometimes in ordinary sleep, but with ease and certainty, dreaming may be induced. Thus the medium may be conducted through all the stages of a journey, may be plunged into grief or raised to exuberant happiness by a few judicious suggestions. This state is nearly related to that of ‘ automatism at command.’ where the medium obeys orders like a docile dog. Thus, as a crucial experiment, Heidenhain ordered his brother, a young medical dent, to cut off his whiskers, the product of a year’s assiduous cultivation, to the unbounded vexation of the unfortunate youth 01 awaking. So too, placing the body in a given position calls up the appropriate actions. A pillow, properly placed in the medium’s arms, is nursed like a baby; music makes him dance; and so on. In all cases, the spoken command, the position of the limbs, or the sensory stimulus, sets up the impulse to the actions indicated, without either intelligence or volition being awakened.

The patient never falls down, and the power of co-ordinating the movements of walking, &c. is nearly perfect; his attitude have often an unusual grace, and in the lighter stages of hypnotism he may converse freely and even with unwonted intelligence and emotion, due, doubtless, partly to freedom from the restraint of a knowledge of the surroundings, partly to the concentration upon a single train of thought.

Very sensitive patients may be hypnotized by monotonous sounds like the ticking of a watch, or even by expectant attention, when alone.

Numerous other remarkable phenomena have been described, Thus, by gentle pressure on the neck of a patient, he can be induced to repeat words spoken in his presence, especially when tin sounds are directed to a sensitive area just below the sternum. Automatism at command is greatly facilitated by imposition of the operator’s hand on the patient’s head. By passes on one side catalepsy or paralysis of the opposite side only can sometimes be induced. Remarkable disturbances of the sensation of color may take place; and so on.

The state of the brain during hypnosis is not as yet well understood. The activity of the ganglion-cells of the cerebral cortex (with which the functions of consciousness are believed to be specially associated) appears to be inhibited by the gentle prolonged stimulation. The cerebral arteries are not contracted. Additional light is being obtained by experiments upon animals, of which many can be thrown into a state closely resembling, if not identical with the hypnotic.

Hypnotism is again coming into use in medical and surgical practice, and its facts have also very important bearings on the phenomena of reverie, trance, somnambulism, religious excitement, mania, spiritualism, &c. See Braid’s Magic, Animal Magnetism, &c. (3d ed., Lond. 1852); Heidenhain’s Animal Magneto (Lond. 1880).

HY’PNOTISM (from the Greek word hypnos, sleep), is a term invented by the late Mr. Braid, of Manchester, to designate certain phenomena of the nervous system which in many respects resemble those which are induced by animal magnetism, but which clearly arise from the physical and psychical condition of the patient, and not from any emanation proceeding from others.

The following are his directions for inducing the phenomena, and especially the peculiar sleep-like condition of hypnotism. Take a silver lancet-case or other bright object, and hold it between the fingers of the left hand, about a foot from the eyes of the person experimented on, in such a position above the forehead as to produce the greatest strain on the eyes compatible with a steady fixed stare at the object. The patient must be directed to rivet his mind on the object at which he is gazing. His pupils will first contract, but soon dilate considerably; and if, after they are well dilated, the first and second fingers of the operator’s right hand, extended and a little separated, are carried from the

object towards the eyes, the eyelids will most probably close with a vibratory motion. After ten or fifteen seconds have elapsed, it will be found that the patient retains his arms and legs in any position in which the operator places them. It will also be found that all the special senses, excepting sight, are at first extremely exalted, as also are the muscular sense and the sensibility of heat and cold; but after a time the exaltation of function is followed by a state of depression far greater than the torpor of natural sleep. The patient is now thoroughly hypnotized. The rigidity of the muscles and the profound torpor of the nervous system may be instantly removed, and an opposite condition induced by directing a current of air against the muscles which we wish to render limber, or the organ we wish to excite to action; and then by mere repose the senses will speedily regain their original condition. If a current of air directed against the face is not sufficient to arouse the patient, pressure and friction should be applied to the eyelids, and the arm or leg sharply struck with the open hand.

From the careful analysis of a large number of experiments, Mr. Braid is led to the conclusion, that by a continual fixation of the mental and visual eye upon an object, with absolute repose of body and general quietude, a feeling of stupor supervenes, which renders the patient liable to be readily affected in the manner already described. As the experiment succeeds with the blind, he considers that ‘ it is not so much the optic, as the sentient, motor, and sympathetic nerves, and the mind through which the impression is made.’

Many of the minor operations of surgery have been performed on patients in the hypnotized state without pain, and hypnotism has been successfully employed as a therapeutic agent in numerous forms of disease, especially such as have their seat in the nervous system. An interesting memoir On Hypnotic Therapeutics was written by Mr. Braid in 1853; but see also more recent works on Animal Magnetism and Mesmerism.

GENERATION, SPONTANEOUS. From the earliest period to the termination of the middle ages, no one called in question the doctrine that, under certain favorable conditions, of which putrefaction was one of the most important, animals might be produced without parents. Anaximander and Empedocles attributed to this form of generation all the living beings which first peopled the globe. Aristotle, without committing himself to so general a view, maintains that animals are sometimes formed in putrefying soil, sometimes in plants, and sometimes in the fluids of other animals, and lays down the following general principle, ‘ that every dry substance which becomes moist, and every moist body which is dried, produces living creatures, provided it is fit for nourishing them.’ The views of Lucretius on this subject are shown in the following lines :

Nonne vides quæcunque morâ, fluidoqne liquore
Corpora tabuerint, in parva animalia verti?

And Pliny maintains that ‘ quædam gignuntur ex non genitis, et sine ullâ simili origine.’ Virgil’s directions for the production of bees are known to every reader of the Georgics, and an expression in the Book of Judges (xiv. 14) probably points to a similar opinion.

Passing from classical times to the later period of the middle ages, and the two succeeding centuries, we may quote amongst the advocates of this theory Cardan—who, in his treatise De Subtilitate (1542), asserts that water engenders fishes, and that manyanimals spring from fermentation—Aldrovandus, Licetus, Gassendi, Scaliger, Van Helmont, who gives special instruction for the artificial production of mice, and Kircher, who in his Mundus Subterraneus (in the chapter ‘ De Panspermia Rerum ‘) describes, and actually figures, certain animals which were produced under his own eyes by the transforming influence of water on fragments of the stems of different plants !

Redi, the celebrated Italian naturalist, whose Experiments on the Generation of Insects were published in 1668, seems to have been the first opponent that the doctrine of spontaneous generation encountered. In this work, he proves that the worms and insects which appear in decaying substances are in reality developed from eggs, deposited in those substances by the parents. Leuwenhoek, Vallisneri, Swammerdam, and other eminent naturalists, soon contributed additional facts and arguments in favor of Redi’s view; and as from the time of Redi to the present day, the tide of opinion has generally turned strongly against the doctrine in question, it is unnecessary to carry the historical sketch further.

The entozoa, however, continued to be a great stumbling-block. ‘ When,’ says Professor Owen, ‘ the entozoologist contemplated the tænia fixed to the intestine, with its uncinated and suctorious head buried in the mucous membrane, rooted to the spot, and imbibing nourishment like a plant—when he saw the sluggish distoma (or fluke) adhering by its sucker to the serous membrane of a close internal cavity, he naturally asked himself how they got there; and finding no obvious solution to the difficulty of the transit on the part of such animals, he was driven to the hypothesis of spontaneous generation to solve the difficulty. It is no wonder that Radolphi (1808) and Bremser (1824) who studied the entozoa rather as naturalists than physiologists, should have been led to apply to them the easy explanation which Aristotle had given for the coming into being of ail kinds of Vermes—viz., that they were spontaneously generated. No other explanation, in the then state of the knowledge of the development of the entozoa, appeared to be adequate to account for the fact of their getting into the interior cavities and tissues of higher animals.’ The recent investigations of Von Siebold, Kuchenmeister, Van Beneden,Philippi, &c., regarding the development and metamorphoses of the entozoa, have, however, tended to remove nearly all the difficulties which this subject presented; and the advocates of spontaneous generation are fairly driven from this, one of the last of their battle-fields.

The only point at present in dispute is, whether microscopic organisms (animals or plants) may be spontaneously generated. It is well known that if we examine under the microscope a drop of water in which almost any animal or vegetable substances have been infused, and which contains the particles of such substances in a state of decay or decomposition, it is found to swarm with minute living organisms. The question at issue is this : Are these organisms developed in the water, if the necessary precautions have been taken to exclude every animalcule or germ capable of development both from the water and from the air that has access to it ? A well-known experiment, devised by Professor Schulze of Berlin (a description of which may be found in Owen’s Lectures on the Invertebrate Animals, 2d ed. p. 44), shows that with due precautions in reference to these points, no animal or vegetable organisms are produced.

This experiment was continued uninterruptedly from the 28th of May until the beginning of August, ‘ and when, at last, the professor separated the different parts of the apparatus, he could not find in the whole liquid the slightest trace of infusoria or con-fervæ, or of mould; but all three presented themselves in great abundance a few days after he had left the flask standing open.’ A vessel with a similar infusion, which he placed near the apparatus, contained vibriones and monads on the second day of the experiment, to which were soon added larger polygastric infusoria.

A few years ago, M. Pouchet announced that he had repeated Schulze’s experiment with every precaution, but that animalcules and plants were invariably developed in the infusion on which he operated. To prove that the atmospheric air contained no germs, he substituted artificial air—that is to say, a mixture of 21 parts of oxygen gas with 79 of nitrogen. The air was introduced into a flask containing an infusion of hay, prepared with distilled water and hay that had been exposed for twenty minutes to a temperature of 212°. He thus apparently guarded against the presence of any germs or animalcules in the infusion or in the air. The whole was then hermetically sealed, so that no other air could gain access; yet after all these precautions, minute animal and vegetable organisms appeared in the infusion. He repeated the experiment with pure oxygen gas instead of air, and obtained similar results. These experiments are described by Pouchet in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles (1858, 4th series, vol. ix. p. 372), and the same volume contains important articles by Milne Edwards, and by De Quatrefages, in opposition to Pouchet’s views.

A very large majority of our physiologists of the present day reject the doctrine; most of the apparently exceptional cases, as, for example, the mysterious presence of the entozoa, have been found to admit of ready explanation; and if we do not positively deny the possibility that animalcules may be generated spontaneously, we may at all events assert that such a mode of generation is not probable, and has certainly not been proved to exist. Haeckel in Germany and Bastian in England may be named as confident defenders of the doctrine of Abiogenesis, as spontaneous or equivocal generation is now technically termed. Those who wish to know fully the arguments for and against the doctrine, are referred, on the one hand, to Pouchet’s He’terogenie, ou Traite de la Ge”ne”ration Spontanee (1859), and to Bastian’s Beginnings of Life (1872); on the other, to Pasteur’s Examen de la Doctrine det Generations Spontanees • and to the admirable statement, expository and historical, in Huxley’s Critiques and Addresses (1878).

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PHOTO-SCULPTURE, invented by M. Willeme in 1867, is an ingenious use of photography to assist a sculptor in modelling portrait statues, or facsimiles and reduced reproductions of other statues. The subject stands in the center of a circular chamber, and is simultaneously photographed by no less than twenty-four cameras, arranged at equal distances round the chamber. The twenty-four photographs are subsequently made available, in the sculptor’s studio, where the clay model is arranged on a frame capable of being turned round. A magic lantern throws the outline of photograph No. 1 on a screen in front of the artist, who by means of a pantograph brings this outline to bear on the clay in its first position. The model is then turned round 1/24th of a revolution, and the outline of photograph No. 2 is taken advantage of. Thus the modeller works his way, in twenty-four changes, round the model, and the likeness or facsimile or reduced figure of the original is or should be complete. The method, which was also applied to the taking of medallions and the like, never came much into use, in spite of its ingenuity.

CSOMA DE KOROS, alexander, a Hungarian scholar and traveler, whose name in his own language is written Köröse Csoma Sandor, was born about 1790 at Körös in Transylvania, and educated first at the college of Nagy-Enyed, and subsequently at Göttingen, where he devoted himself with great zeal to the study of the Oriental tongues. The dream and inspiration of his boyhood was the hope of one day discovering the original home of his Magyar ancestors, and as he grew up, it became the single thought and passion of his life. In 1820, he set out on his visionary pilgrimage. After a year’s interval, his friends got a letter from him, dated Teheran, in which he expressed his conviction that the object of his search would speedily be obtained. Leaving Teheran, he wandered north-east through Little Bokhara, and at length reached Tibet, where he spent about four years (1827—1830) in the Buddhist monastery of Kanam, studying Tibetan. He soon discovered that there was little connection between that language and his native one, but still he hoped to make use of his researches, and set out for Calcutta. Here he learned, to his dismay, that the literature of Tibet was simply a translation from the Sanscrit—a language he might easily have acquired a knowledge of at home. His whole labor seemed to have been in vain. Fortunately for C., the library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal contained upwards of 1000 volumes in Tibetan which no one could catalogue. C. undertook and successfully executed the task. By the great Anglo-Indian scholars, Prinsep, Wilson, and others, he was very generously treated. He next prepared, at the expense of the government, a Tibetan grammar and dictionary (Calcutta, 1834), which was the first really accurate and valuable European work on the subject. It is still a standard treatise, and has been the guide of all good scholars since. C. wrote many articles on Tibetan literature in the Asiatic Researches, but still haunted, as of old, by the hope of discovering the early home of the Magyars, he once more set out on an expedition to the western confines of China, but died on the 11th April 1842, at Darjeeling in Sikkim.

PHONOGRAPH. This apparatus, invented in 1877 by Mr. Thomas A. Edison, an American electrician of note, differs from the vibrograph and phonautograph. The latter are constructed to record sound vibrations graphically, while Mr. Edison’s invention, which is properly called the ‘ Talking Phonograph,’ is designed to obtain such a record that the sound vibrations resulting from articulate speech can be mechanically reproduced at a distance of time. The invention, at the time these words are written, is only in the experimental stage, but it has been successfully exhibited both in America and in Britain. As originally made, the instrument consisted of three parts—the sender, the receiver or recorder, and the transcriber; but in the P. exhibited by Professor Fleeming Jenkin before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the last apparatus was dispensed with, the sender being constructed to fulfil both functions. This sender consists of a tube, having an open mouth-piece at one end, and bearing at the other end a thin diaphragm of metal or other substance, with a sharp point or style affixed to the center of its outer surface.

The second apparatus consists of a cylinder, about four inches in diameter, having on its periphery a V-shaped groove, cut spirally from end to end. Over this grooved cylinder a sheet of tinfoil is placed, and the sender is advanced till the point of the style lightly touches the tinfoil, over the opening of the V-shaped cut. While the words to be recorded are spoken or sung, the cylinder is turned rapidly, the apparatus for moving it giving a lateral as well as a circular motion. The point of the style thus traverses the tinfoil spirally from end to end, and the vibrations in the diaphragm caused by the sounds, result in a series of indentations in the tinfoil. To reproduce the sounds in the ‘ transcriber’ (or in the ‘ sender ‘ under Professor Jenkin’s arrangement), the cylinder is again presented to a style attached to a diaphragm, the style being pressed against the tinfoil by a slight spring. The cylinder is now made to revolve, and the motion of the style upon the inequalities in the indented tinfoil produce vibrations in the diaphragm corresponding to the sound-caused vibrations originally created in the instrument by the voice. The sounds are thus reproduced with great exactness, but with a softening of the consonants which to some extent alters the character of the voice. If the tinfoil record of sung or spoken sounds be sent to a distance, or kept for a length of time, the original sounds can be reproduced on applying it to the proper instrument. It is stated that rubbings in tinfoil can be taken from a plaster-cast of the original indented slip, so that copies may be sent to different persons, all of whom can thus reproduce the sounds so long as their tinfoil copy remains intact. In using the P. to repeat sounds, the cylinder must be revolved at the same speed as at first, otherwise the pitch will be changed. For as sound is the result of air-vibrations at known intervals, if a speech spoken in a high key were reproduced slower at the repeating instrument, the result would be to convert a treble voice into a bass one, or vice versa, while the lower speed would convert smartly-spoken words into a drawl.

PETTY SESSIONS is the court constituted by two or more justices of the peace in England, when sitting in the administration of their ordinary jurisdiction. Though for many purposes statutes enable one justice to do acts auxiliary to the hearing and adjudication of a matter, yet the jurisdiction to adjudicate is generally conferred upon the justices in petty sessions, in which case there must be at least two justices present, and tins is called a petty sessions, as distinguished from quarter sessions, which generally may entertain an appeal from petty sessions. For the purpose of securing always sufficient justices, the whole of the counties of England are subdivided into what are called petty sessional divisions, those justices who live in the immediate neighborhood Hun; the members who form the court of such division. This subdivision of counties is confirmed by statute, and the justices at farter sessions have power from time to time to alter it. Each petty sessions is held in some town or village which gives it a name, and a police-court or place is appropriated for the purpose of the sittings of the court. There is a clerk of each petty sessions, usually a local attorney, who advises the justices, and issues the summons and receives the fees made payable for steps of the process. The justices in petty sessions have a multifarious jurisdiction, which they exercise chiefly by imposing penalties authorial by various acts of parliament, as penalties against poachers, vagrants, absconding workmen and apprentices, &c. They also have jurisdiction to hear charges for all indictable offences, to take depositions of witnesses, and, if they think a case of suspicion is made out, to commit the party for trial at the quarter sessions or assizes, and to bind over the witnesses to attend. See also JUSTICE OF THE PEACE.

PHARMACOPŒ’IA. This term has been applied to various works, consisting for the most part of (1) a list of the articles of the Materia Medica, whether simple or compound, with their characters, and the tests for the determination of their purity; and (2) a collection of approved receipts or prescriptions, together with the processes for articles in the Materia Medica, obtained by chemical operations. Almost every civilized country of importance has its national pharmacopœia, amongst which those of the United States, France, and Prussia deserve specially honorable notice. The first pharmacopœia published under authority appears to have been that of Nuremberg in the year 1542. A student named Valerius Cordus, who was staying for a short time at Nuremberg, showed a collection of medical receipts, which lie had selected from the works of the most eminent writers, to the physicians of that city, who were so struck with its value that they urged him to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of the senatus. Before this time, the books chiefly in use amongst apothecaries were the treatises: On Simples by Avicenna and Serapion; the Liber Servitoris of Balchasim ben Aberazerim; the Antidotarium of Johannes Damascenus or Mezue, arranged in classes; and the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno, which was arranged alphabetically. This work was commonly called Nicolaus Magnus, to distinguish it from an abridgment known as Nicolaus Parvus.

Confining our remarks to the British Pharmacopœias, we may notice that the first edition of the London Pharmacopœia (or, more correctly speaking, of the Pharmacopœia of the London College of Physicians) appeared in 1618, and was chiefly founded on the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno. Successive editions appeared in 1627, 1635, 1650, 1697, 1721, 1746, 1787, 1809, 1824, 1836, and 1851; and form an important contribution to the history of the progress of pharmacy and therapeutics during the last two centuries and a half. The nature and the number of the ingredients that entered into the composition of many of the pharmaceutical preparations of the 17th and 18th centuries, would equally astonish most of the practitioners and patients of the present day. In the earlier editions we find enumerated earth-worms, snails, wood-lice, frogs, toads, puppy clogs, foxes (’ a fat fox of middle age, if you can get such a one ‘), the skull of a man who had been hanged, the blood of the cat, the urine and excrements of various animals, &c.; and electuaries were ordered, containing 50, 62, and in one instance—Mathiolus, his Great Antidote against Poison and Pestilence—124 different ingredients.

The Edinburgh Pharmacopœia is more modern than the London, the first edition having appeared in 1699; while the Dublin Pharmacopœia does not date further back than 1807. The latest edition of these works appeared in the years 1841 and 1850 respectively.

Until the Medical Act passed in 1858, the right of publishing the pharmacopœias for England, Scotland, and Ireland was vested in the Colleges of Physicians of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin respectively; and as these three pharmacopœias contained many important preparations, similar in name but totally different in strength (as, for example, dilute hydrocyanic acid, solution of hydrochlorate of morphia, &c.), dangerous complications arose from a London prescription being made up in Edinburgh or Dublin, or vice versa. By that act it is ordained that ‘the General [Medical] Council shall cause to be published, under their direction, a book containing a list of medicines and compounds, and the manner of preparing them, together with the true weights and measures by which they are to be prepared and mixed; and containing such other matter and things relating thereto as the General Council shall think fit, to be called British Pharmacopœia, which shall for all purposes be deemed to be substituted throughout Great Britain and Ireland, for the several above-mentioned pharmacopœias.’ The British Pharmacopœia, published in 1864, had the merit of amalgamating the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin pharmacopœias; but it unfortunately contained so many defects, that, in accordance with the universal wishes both of the medical profession and of the chemists, the Medical Council ordered a new edition to be as speedily as possible prepared. This new edition has met with general favor from the profession; and it is to be hoped that as we have now succeeded in incorporating three distinct works into one, we may hope by and by to have a universal Pharmacopœia, or, at all events, one of so general a nature that the most important medicines of the American. British, and chief continental pharmacopœias shall all be of the same strength.

PHI’LIPPINE ISLANDS, lie to the north of Borneo and Celebes, in 5° 80′—19° 42′ N. lat., and 117° 14′—126° 4′ E. long,. They are more than 1200 in number, with an area of about 150,-000 square miles. Pop. (1876) 6,173,632, three-fourths of whom are subject to Spain, the remainder governed, according to their own laws and customs, by independent native princes.

Luzon, in the north, has an area of 51,300 square miles, and Mindanao, or Magindanao, in the south, fully 25.000. The islands; lying between Luzon and Mindanao are called the Bissayas, the largest of which are—Samar, area 13,020 square miles; Mindoro, 12,600; Panay, 11,340; Leyte, 10,080 ; Negros, 6300; Masbate, 4200; and Zebu, 2352. There are upwards of a thousand lesser islands of which little is known. To the south-west of the. Bissayas lies the long, narrow island of Paragoa or Palawan,, formed of a mountain-chain with low coast-lines, cut with numerous streams, and exceedingly fertile. The forests abound in ebony, log-wood, gum-trees, and bamboos. Area 8820 square miles. To-the north of Luzon lie the Batanen, Bashee, and Babuyan islands* the two first groups having about 8000 inhabitants, the last unpeopled.

The Sooloo Islands form a long chain from Mindanao to Borneo, having the same mountainous and volcanic structure as the P. I., and all are probably fragments of a submerged continent. Many active volcanoes are scattered through the islands; Mayon, in Luzon, and Buhayan, in Mindanao, often causing great devastation. The mountain-chains run north and south, and never attain a greater elevation than 7000 feet. The islands have many rivers, the coasts are indented with deep bays, and there are many lakes in the interior. Earthquakes are frequent and destructive.

Manila, the capital, having been nearly destroyed by one in 1863. In 1864, another terrific earthquake visited Mindanao, destroying most of the houses. Three successive earthquakes in 1880 did great damage, especially in Manila, where many buildings were totally ruined. The soil is fertile, except where extensive marshes occur. In Mindanao are numerous lakes, which expand during the rainy seasons into inland seas. Rain may be expected from May to December, and from June to November the land is flooded. Violent hurricanes are experienced in the north of Luzon and west coast of Mindanao. Especially during the changes of the monsoons, storms of wind, rain, thunder and lightning prevail. The weather is very fine, and heat moderate, from December to May, when the temperature rapidly rises and becomes oppressive, except for a short time after a fall of rain. The fertility of the soil and humid atmosphere produce a richness of vegetation which is nowhere surpassed. Blossoms and fruit hang together on the trees, and the cultivated fields yield a constant succession of crops.

Immense forests spread over the P. I., clothing the mountains to their summits; ebony, iron-wood, cedar, sapan-wood, gum-trees, &c., being laced together and garlanded by the bush-rope or palasan, which attains a length of several hundred feet. The variety of fruit-trees is great, including the orange, citron, breadfruit, mango, cocoa-nut, guava, tamarind, rose-apple, &c.; other important products of the vegetable kingdom being the banana, plantain, pine-apple, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco, indigo, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, vanilla, cassia, the areca-nut, ginger, pepper, Ac., with rice, wheat, maize, and various other cereals.

Gold is found in riverbeds and detrital deposits, being used, in form of dust, as the medium of exchange in Mindanao. Iron is plentiful, and fine coal-beds, from one to four feet thick, have been found. Copper has long been worked in Luzon. There are also limestone, a fine variegated marble, sulphur in unlimited quantity, quicksilver, vermilion, and saltpetre—the sulphur being-found both native and in combination with copper, arsenic, and iron.

Except the wild cat, beasts of prey are unknown. There are oxen, buffaloes, sheep, goats, swine, harts, squirrels, and a great variety of monkeys. The jungles swarm with lizards, snakes, .and other reptilia; the rivers and lakes with crocodiles. Huge spiders, tarantulas, white ants, mosquitoes, and locusts are plagues which form a set-off to the beautiful fire-flies, the brilliant queen-beetle (Elater noctilucus), the melody of myriads of birds, the turtle-doves, pheasants, birds of paradise, and many lovely species of paroquets, with which the forests are alive. ‘ Hives of wild bees hang from the branches, and alongside of them are the nests of humming-birds dangling in the wind.’

The caverns along the shores are frequented by the swallow, whose edible nest is esteemed by the Chinese a rich delicacy. Some of them are also tenanted by multitudes of bats of immense size. Buffaloes are used for tillage and draught; a small horse for riding. Fowls are plentiful, and incredible numbers of ducks are artificially hatched. Fish is in great abundance and variety. Mother-of-pearl, coral, amber, and tortoise-shell are important articles of commerce. The Tagals and Bisayers are the most numerous native races. They dwell in the cities and cultivated lowlands; 2,500,000 being converts to Roman Catholicism, and a considerable number, especially of the Bisayers, Mohammedan. The mountain districts are inhabited by a negro race, who, in features, stature, and savage mode of living, closely resemble the Alfoors of the interior of Papua, and are probably the aborigines driven back before the inroads of the Malays. A few of the negroes are Christian, but they are chiefly idolaters, or without any manifest form of religion, and roaming about in families, without fixed dwelling. The Mestizos form an influential part of the population; by their activity engrossing the greatest share of the trade. These are mostly of Chinese fathers and native mothers. Few Spaniards reside in the P. I., and the leading mercantile houses are English and American. The Chinese exercise various trades and callings, remaining only for a time, and never bringing their wives with them. The principal languages are the Tagalese and Bisayan. Rice, sweet potatoes, fish, flesh, and fruits form the food of the Tagals and Bisayers, who usually drink only water, though sometimes indulging in cocoa-wine. Tobacco is used by all. They are gentle, hospitable, fond of dancing and cock-fighting.

With the exception of two Spanish brigades of artillery and a corps of engineers, the army is composed of natives, and consists of seven regiments of infantry and one of cavalry. There is also a body of Spanish militia in Manila, whom the governor, as commander of the naval and land forces, may call out in an emergency. The navy has four steamships, one brig, six gun-boats, .and a great number of feluccas for coast service. Education is far behind, and similar to what it was in Europe during the middle ages. There is an archbishop of Manila, and bishops of New Segovia, Nueva Caceres, and Zebu. Religious processions are the pride of the people, and are formed with great parade, thousands of persons carrying wax-candles, &c. The natives not only build canoes, but ships of considerable tonnage. They weave various textile fabrics of silk, cotton, abaca, and very fine shawls and handkerchiefs from the fibre of pine-apple leaves. These are called pinas, and often sell for one or two ounces of gold apiece, The pinilian is the finest sort, and is only made to order—one for the queen of Spain costing 500 dollars. They work in horn, make silver and gold chains, fine hats and cigar-cases of fibres, and beautiful mats of different colors, ornamented with gold and silver. The governor-general is appointed direct from Spain, and resides at Manila. There are also a lieutenant-governor, governors of provinces and chiefs of pueblos or townships, who are elected yearly. Acting governors reside also at Zamboanga in Mindanao, and Iloilo in Panay. They are appointed for six years by the governor-general.

It is to be remembered that all the ports of this archipelago, except Sual, Iloilo, Zebu, and Manila, are still closed against foreign vessels. In 1868, there seemed a gleam of hope that a more liberal commercial policy would be adopted by Spain for their possessions among the Philippine Islands. In that year it was decreed that differential duties should be abolished in April 1871. They were abolished accordingly, but only for three months. In July an, order was issued granting importers, under the Spanish flag, of foreign goods, an advantage of 2-5 per cent. The value of the imports into the United Kingdom for the P. I. and Ladrones in 1880 was £1,688,663; of our exports thither, £1,328,482. The total exports from the P. I. in 1877 were valued at £3.592,900; of which Great Britain got £1,239.000; India. £80,000; Hong Kong, £40,000. The imports for 1876 were £2,397,432, the duties on which amounted to 7f per cent, on their value. The principal exports are sugar, tobacco, cigars, indigo. Manila hemp, or Abaca (q. v.), coffee, rice, dye-woods, hides, gold-dust, and bees-wax. Cotton, woollen, and silk goods, agricultural implements, watches, jewelry, &c., are imported. British and American merchants do the largest business, the imports from Great Britain being about £1,000,000 per annum.

The Sooloo islands have a population of 150.000; are governed by a sultan, whose capital is Sung, in 66° 1′ N. lat., and 120° 55′ 51″ E. long., who also rules over the greatest part of Paragon, the northern corner only being subject to Spain.

Luzon has a population of 2,500.000, one-fifth part being independent; the Bissayas islands, 2,000,000, of whom three-fourths are under Spanish rule. The population of Panay amounts to 750,000, and that of Zebu to 150,000. Of the numbers in Mindanao nothing-is known; the districts of Zamboanga, Misamis, and Caragan, with 100,000 inhabitants, being all that is subject to Spain. The greater part of the island is under the sultan of Mindanao, resident at Selanga, in 7° 9′ N. lat. and 124° 38′ E. long., who, with his feudatory chiefs, can bring together an army of 100,000 men. He is on friendly terms with the Spaniards. Besides Manila, there are very many large and important cities, especially in Luzon, Panay, and Zebu. The great centers of trade are Manila in Luzon, and Iloilo in Panay.

The P. I. were discovered in 1521 by Magellan, who, after visiting Mindanao, sailed to Zebu, where, taking part with the king in a war, he was wounded, and died at Mactan, 26th April 1521. Some years later the Spanish court sent an expedition under Villabos, who named the Islands in honor of the Prince of As tunas, afterwards Philip II. For some time the chief Spanish settlement was on Zebu; but in 1581 Manila was built, and has since continued to be the seat of government.

CALCULATING MACHI’NE. The most remarkable application hitherto made of machinery, is perhaps that through which it has been used to relieve the scientific inquirer to a very great extent of the fatigue of manipulating figures, which consumes so much of his time and energies. Various machines have been constructed for this purpose, differing in the extent of their faculties —to use words more suitable to thinking beings than to engines— and somewhat in the principles of their construction. By the Arithmometer, for instance, a machine invented by M. Thomas of Colmar, all ordinary arithmetical operations are executed without fatigue to the operator; and by a machine contrived by M. M. Scheutz, which rests on the principle of Differences (q. v.), on the turning of a wheel, the successive terms of any series whose law may be confided to it, are produced—the machine at the same time printing a large proportion of its results, and thus providing for the accuracy of its tables. It is a fact of which the nation should be proud, that our countryman, Mr. Babbage, is universally acknowledged as the instigating and guiding genius in the progress of these remarkable inventions.

Among his inventions was a Difference Engine, of very comprehensive powers, indeed capable of managing series so complex that the differences of its terms do not reach zero until we ascend to the seventh order (vide art. DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF). An immense range of nautical and astronomical tables lie within the limits just defined; and the machine further tabulates approximately any series whatever that can be treated by the Method of Differences. While engaged in constructing the Difference Machine, Mr. Babbage, probably through his increased experience of the capabilities of machinery, was led to form a new conception —that, namely, of the Analytical Machine. He actually succeeded so far as to devise the means of making his machine perform all the elementary operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; and it is clear that all changes that can be produced on quantity are merely combinations of these. If, then, he could but have made his machine perform these operations at command, and according to any special order, it could have clearly developed any function whatever whose law is ascertained and fixed. A solution of this difficulty was suggested by the Jacquard Loom (q.v.), in which the cards oblige a machine capable of working any pattern to work out one particular pattern; and Mr. Babbage having succeeded so far as to form a machine capable of executing any development, expected, by means of cards of operations, to compel his C. M. to work according to one fixed law, and no other. Government, however, did not see its way to make the further grants required for this machine, and at Mr. Babbage’s death in 1871, nothing further had been done towards its completion. The Difference Machine is now lying, an unfinished curiosity, in the museum of King’s College, London. Both machines will be found described in the third volume of Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs. The Difference Engine, constructed by Grant for the university of Pennsylvania, is said to be less expensive than Babbage’s, and less complicated than Scheutz’s, though provided like it with an apparatus for printing the results.

WHIG and TORY, the names which for the last two centuries have been popularly applied to two opposite political parties in Great Britain. Both were at first names of reproach. Whig was originally a nickname of the peasantry of the Western Lowlands of Scotland, said by some to be derived from a word or sound used by them in driving their horses; by others, from whig, ‘ an acetous liquor subsiding from sour cream.’—Jamieson. Its next application was to the bands of Covenanters, chiefly from the west, of Scotland, who, subsequently to the murder of Archbishop Sharpe, took up arms against the government, and after gaining some successes in encounters with the king’s troops, were defeated at Bothwell Bridge. Thence the name Whig (or Whigamore) came to be fastened, first, on the whole Presbyterian zealots of Scotland, and afterwards on those English politicians who showed a disposition to oppose the court, and treat Protestant nonconformists with leniency. The word Tory—said to be derived from tora, tora, in Irish, ‘give, give.’ or ‘ stand and deliver’—was first given to certain bands of outlaws, half-robber, half-insurgent, professing the Roman Catholic faith, who harassed the English in Ireland; and was thence applied reproachfully to all who were supposed to be abettors of the imaginary Popish plot; and then generally to persons who refused to concur in the exclusion of a Roman Catholic prince from the throne. These two nicknames, which came into use about 1680, immediately became familiar words, and have since been retained as designations of two opposite political sides—the Tories being, generally speaking, the adherents of the ancient constitution of England without change, and the supporters of regal, ecclesiastical, and aristocratic authority; while the Whigs have been the advocates of such changes in the constitution as tend in the direction of democracy.

The most sweeping constitutional change of the present century which the Whigs have carried is the Reform Bill of 1832. Each party, while preserving within certain limits a general consistency of purpose, has undergone many changes in its principles, professions, and modes of action with the altering circumstances of the country; and among persons who have been considered adherents of each side at any given time, there have seldom been wanting a variety of more or less distinctive shades of opinion. A division in the ranks of either party has often led the more moderate section of that party to coalesce with the opposite side; and at other times, the extreme party of innovation, dropping their connection with the Whigs, have adopted another name, as when those politicians whose desire was to have the whole institutions of the country remodeled on a democratic basis, assumed the designation of Radical Reformers or Radicals. See also chartism. For a considerable time after the Reform Bill, the governing section of the Whig party were more disposed to maintain the principles of the changes already made, than to insist on further constitutional changes; and the principles maintained by Whigs and Tories sometimes approximated so closely that the difference seemed more one of men than of measures. Sometimes one party, sometimes the other, has appeared as the advocate of measures which have proved beneficial. In the agitation for the repeal of the Corn-laws, which lasted from 1841 to 1846, the Tories were ranked on the side of protection, and the Whigs of free trade; but the relations of the two parties had been the reverse at a former period, when Mr. Pitt’s advocacy of free trade between England and Ireland was opposed by the manufacturers of Lancashire, who succeeded in getting his measure postponed. During the last thirty years, the names Liberal and Conservative have to a great extent superseded the former party designations of Whig and Tory.

PRECE’DENCE, the order in which individuals are entitled to follow one another in a state procession or on other public occasions. We find questions of precedence arising in very early ages both in Europe and in the East. Where such questions have arisen among ambassadors, as the representatives of different countries, great tenacity has often been shown in supporting the claims to rank of the states represented. In England, the order of precedence depends partly on the statute 31 Henry VIII-c. 10. partly on subsequent statutes, royal letters patent, and ancient usages. Among questions of precedence depending on usage, there are some which can hardly be considered so settled as to be matter of right, and are in a great degree left to the discretion of the officers of the crown. Formerly, they were adjudicated on by the Constable and Marshal in the Court of Chivalry; and since that tribunal has fallen into abeyance, the practice of persons aggrieved in these matters is to petition the crown, which generally refers the disputed question to the officers of arms. In Scotland, the Lyon Court has the direct jurisdiction in all questions of precedence.
It is a general rule of precedence, that persons of the same rank follow according to the order of the creation of that rank; and in the precedence of the English peerage, it has been fixed that the younger sons of each preceding rank take place immediately after the eldest son of the next succeeding rank. Married women and widows take the same rank among each other as their husbands, except such rank be professional or official, and it is an invariable rule that no office gives rank to the wife or children of the holder of it. Unmarried women take the same rank with their eldest brother; the wife of the eldest son, of any degree, however, preceding the sisters of her husband and all other ladies in the same degree with them. Marriage with an inferior does not take away the precedence which a woman enjoys by birth or creation; with this exception, that the wife of a peer always takes her rank from her husband. The following tables exhibit the precedence of different ranks as recognized by law in England.
TABLE OF PRECEDENCE AMONG MEN.
The Sovereign.
The Prince of Wales.
Sons of the Sovereign.
Grandsons of the Sovereign.
Brothers of the Sovereign.
Uncles of the Sovereign.
The Sovereign’s Brothers’ or Sisters’ Sons.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of all England.
The Lord High Chancellor, or Lord Keeper, being a Baron.
The Archbishop of York, Primate of England.
The present Archbishop of Armagh, by the Irish Church Act (1869).
The Archbishop of Dublin.
The Lord High Treasurer.
The Lord President of the Privy Council.
The Lord Privy Seal.
The Lord Great Chamberlain.
The Lord High Constable.
The Earl Marshal.
The Lord High Admiral.
The Lord Steward of Her Majesty’s Household.
The Lord Chamberlain of Her Majesty’s Household.
Dukes.
Eldest Sons of Dukes of the Blood
Royal. Marquises.
Dukes’ Eldest Sons.
Earls.
Younger Sons of Dukes of the Blood Royal.
Marquises’ Eldest Sons.
Dukes’ Younger Sons.
Viscounts.
Earls’ Eldest Sons.
Marquises’ Younger Sons.
Bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester.
All other English Bishops according to seniority of Consecration.
The present Bishop of Meath, and then the other Irish Bishops existing in 1869, according to seniority of consecration.
Secretaries of State, if of degree of a Baron.
Barons.
The Speaker of the House of Commons.
Commissioners of the Great Seal.
Treasurer of Her Majesty’s Household.
Comptroller of Her Majesty’s Household.
Master of the Horse.
Vice Chamberlain of Her Majesty’s Household.
Secretaries of State, under the degree of Baron.
Viscounts’ Eldest Sons.
Earls’ Younger Sons.
Barons’ Eldest Sons.
Knights of the Garter.
Privy Councillors.
The Chancellor of the Order of the Garter.
The Chancellor of the Exchequer.
The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
The Lord Chief Justice of the Queen’s Bench.
The Master of the Rolls.
Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas.
Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer.
Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal in Chancery.
Vice-chancellors.
Judges and Barons of the degree of the Coif of the said Courts, and Judge of the Court of Probate.
Bannerets made by the Sovereign under the Royal Standard in open war.
Viscounts’ Younger Sons.
Barons’ Younger Sons,
Baronets.
Bannerets not made by the Sovereign in person.
Knights Grand Crosses of the Bath.
Knights Grand Crosses of the Star of India.
Knights of St. Patrick.
Knights Grand Crosses of St. Michael and St. George.
Knights Commanders of the Bath.
Knights Commanders of the Star of India.
Knights Commanders of St. Michael and St. George.
Knights Bachelors.
Companions of the Bath.
Companions of the Star of India.
Cavalier! and Companions of St. Michael and St. George.
Eldest Sons of the Younger Sons of Peers.
Baronets’ Eldest Sons.
Eldest Sons of Knights of the Garter.
Bannerets’ Eldest Sons.
Eldest Sons of Knights of the Bath, and of St. Michael, and St. George.
Eldest Sons of Knights Bachelors.
Baronets’ Younger Sons.
Younger Sons of Knights of the Garter.
Younger Sons of Bannerets.
Younger Sons of Knights of the Bath.
Younger Sons of Knights Bachelors.
Esquires.
Gentlemen entitled to bear arms.
Clergymen,
Barristers-at-law.
Officers in the Army and Navy, who are all gentleman, and have their precedency in their
respective professions.
Citizens.
Burgesses.

TABLE OF PRECEDENCE AMONG WOMEN”.
The Queen.
The Princess of Wales.
Princesses, Daughters of the Sovereign.
Princesses and Duchesses, Wives of the Sovereign’s Sons.
Grand-daughters of the Sovereign.
Wives of the Sovereign’s Grandsons.
The Sovereign’s Sisters.
Wives of the Sovereign’s Brothers.
The Sovereign’s Aunts.
Wives of the Sovereign’s Uncles.
Duchesses.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Dukes of the Blood Royal.
Daughters of Dukes of the Blood Royal.
Marchionesses.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Dukes.
Daughters of Dukes.
Countesses.
Wives of the Younger Sons of Dukes of the Blood Royal.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Marquises.
Daughters of Marquises.
Wives of the Younger Sons of Dukes.
Viscountesses.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Earls.
Daughters of Earls.
Wives of the Younger Sons of Marquises.
Baronesses.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Viscounts.
Daughters of Viscounts.
Wives of the Younger Sons of Earls.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Barons.
Daughters of Barons.
Maids of Honor.
Wives of Knights of the Garter.
Wives of Bannerets.
Wives of the Younger Sons of Viscounts.
Wives of the Younger Sons of Barons.
Wives of Baronets.
Wives of Knights Grand Crosses of the Order of the Bath.
Wives of Knights Grand Crosses of St. Michael and St. George.
Wives of Knights Commanders of the Order of the Bath.
Wives of Knights Commanders of St. Michael and St. George.
Wives of Knights Bachelors.
Wives of Companions of the Bath.
Wives of Cavalieri and Companions of St. Michael and St. George.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of the Younger Sons of Peers
Daughters of the Younger Sons of Peers
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Baronets
Daughters of Baronets.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Knights of the Garter
Daughters of Knights of the Garter
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Bannerets
Daughters of Bannerets.
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Knights of the Bath
Daughters of Knights of the Bath
Wives of the Eldest Sons of Knights Bachelors
Daughters of Knights Bachelors
Wives of the Younger Sons of Baronets
Wives of Esquires and Gentlemen
Wives of Citizens
Wives of Burgesses.

At the coronation of Charles I., the rule of precedency of the nobility of England was introduced into Scotland; and it was arranged that peers of England (or their sons, &c.), of a given degree, should within England take precedence of peers of Scotland of the same degree; and that this precedence should be reversed in Scotland.” But by the acts of Union of Scotland and Ireland, the precedence in any given degree of the peerage has been established as follows: 1. Peers of England; 2. Peers of Scotland; 3. Peers of Great Britain; 4. Peers of Ireland; 5. Peers of the United Kingdom, and Peers of Ireland created subsequently to the Irish Union.

A similar order is understood to obtain in regard to baronets, though in Ireland it seems lately to have become the practice to allow all baronets to rank according to the respective dates of their patents. The relative ranking of the great officers of the crown of Scotland was thus settled by statute in 1623 and 1661.

Lord Chancellor.
Lord Treasurer.
Archbishop of St
Andrews.
Archbishop of Glasgow.
Earls and Viscounts according to their ranks.
Bishops according to their ranks.
Lord Privy Seal,
Lord Secretary,
(first of their rank)
Lord President of the Court of Session
Lord Register
Lord Advocate
Lord Justice Clerk
Lord Treasurer Depute.
Lords of Session, according to their admission
Barons and Gentlemen, being Councillors, according to their admission.

The right of the judges of the Court of Session, in Scotland, to precede baronets, has generally been admitted. Lyon King of Arms has precedency ‘before all knights and gentlemen within the kingdom, not being officers of state, or senators of the College of Justice.’ It seems to be held in England that the precedence of Scotch officers of suite, judges, &c., as recognized before the Union, does not now extend beyond Scotland. There are rules for precedence for the members of different professions, recognized among themselves, but which do not confer general social precedence
Doctors in the universities rank thus : 1. Of Divinity; 2. of Law; 3. of Medicine.

Each lung is invested externally by a very delicate serous membrane termed the pleura, which, after enclosing the whole organ, except at its root, where the great vessels enter it, is reflected upon the inner surface of the thorax or chest. That portion of the pleura which is in contact with the surface of the lung is called the pleura pulmonalis, or visceral layer; whilst

that which lines the interior of the chest is called the pleura costalis, or parietal layer; while the space intervening between these two layers is called the cavity of the pleura. Each pleura, as will be at once seen by a reference to the figure, is a closed sac, and quite independent of the other. The interspace between the pleurae on the right and left side, is termed the mediastinum, and contains all the viscera of the thorax excepting the lungs.

The inner surface of each pleura is smooth, glistening, and moistened by a serous fluid; the outer surface is closely adherent to the surface of the lung, to the roots of the pulmonary vessels as they enter the lung, to the upper surface of the diaphragm, and to the walls of the chest. The lobes of the lungs are separated from one another by involutions or in-foldings of the visceral layer; two such involutions�one on either side�are shown in the figure. The use of these serous sacs is much the same as that of the Peritoneum (q. v.); each pleura retains the lung and, to a certain extent, the greater vessels in position, while it at the same time facilitates, within certain limits, the movements of those parts which are essential to the due performance of the act of respiration.

PARENT AND CHILD. The legal relation between parent and child is one of the incidents or consequences of the relation of husband and wife, and flows out of the contract of marriage. The legal is to be distinguished from the natural relation, for two persons may be by the law of nature parent and child, while they are not legally or legitimately so. Hence a radical distinction exists between natural or illegitimate and legitimate children, and their legal rights as against their parents respectively are very different. Legitimate children are the children of two parents who are recognized as married according to the laws of the country in which they are domiciled at the time of the birth; and according to the law of England, if a child is illegitimate at the time of the birth, nothing that can happen afterwards will ever make it legitimate, the maxim being ‘ once illegitimate always illegitimate ‘— a maxim which, as will be stated, has some exceptions in Scotland. In treating of the laws affecting the mutual relation of parent and child, the laws of England and Ireland, which differ from the law of Scotland in material respects, will first be stated.

1. As to Legimitate Children.—These laws relate first to the liability of the parent to maintain the child, and the rights of the child in the event of the parent’s death. As regards the maintenance of the child, it is somewhat singular that, according to the law of England, there is no duty whatever on the parent to support the child, and consequently no mode of enforcing such maintenance. The law of nature was probably considered sufficient to supply the motives which urge a parent to support the child, but the municipal law of England has not made this duty compulsory. This defect was to some extent remedied when what is called the Poor-Law was created by statute in the reign of Elizabeth, by which law parents and children are compellable to a certain small extent, but only when having the pecuniary means to do so, to support each other, or rather to help the parish authorities to do so. But apart from the Poor-Law statutes, there is no legal obligation on the parent to support the child, nor on the child to support the parent. Hence it follows, that if the child is found in a destitute state, and is taken up, fed, and clothed, and saved from starvation by a stranger, such stranger cannot sue the parent for the expense, or any part of it, however necessary to the child’s existence.

In order to make the father liable for maintenance, there must in all cases be made out against him some contract, express or implied, by which he undertook to pay for such expense; in other words, the mere relationship between the parent and child is not of itself a ground of liability. But when the child is living in the father’s house, it is always held by a jury or court that slight evidence is sufficient of, at least, an implied promise by the father to pay for such expenses. As, for example, if the child orders clothes or provisions, and the father see these in use or in process of consumption, it will be taken that he assented to and adopted the contract, and so will be bound to pay for them. So if a parent put a child to a boarding-school, very slight evidence of a contract will be held sufficient to fix him with liability. Nevertheless, in strictness of law, it is as necessary to prove a contract or agreement on the part of the parent to pay for these expenses as it is to fix him with liability in respect of any other matter. When it is said that a parent is not compellable by the common law to maintain his child, it must, at the same time, be observed that if a child is put under the care and dominion of an adult person, and the latter wilfully neglect or refuse to feed or maintain such child, whereby the child dies or is injured, such adult will incur the penalties of misdemeanor; but this offence does not result from the relationship of parent and child, and may arise between an adult and child in any circumstances, as where a child is an apprentice or servant.

The change as to the liability of parents to maintain their children created by the Poor-Laws amounts merely to this, that if a person is chargeable to the parish, that is, not able to work as well as destitute, and if the overseers or guardians are bound to support him or her, then the parish authorities may reimburse themselves this outlay, or part of it, by obtaining from justices of the peace an order commanding the parent or child of such pauper to pay a certain sum per week towards the relief. This is, however, only competent when the relative is able to pay such sum, and in all cases the sum is of necessity very small. Not only parents, but grand-parents, are liable under the Poor-Law Act to the extent mentioned. Another provision in the Poor-Law and other kindred acts is, that if a parent runs away and deserts his children, leaving them destitute and a burden on the parish, the overseers are entitled to seize and sell his goods, if any, for the benefit and maintenance of such children; and if the parent, so deserting the children, is able by work or other means to support them, such parent may be committed to prison as a rogue and vagabond. Not only, therefore, is a parent during life not bound to maintain his or her child (with the above exceptions), but also after the parent’s death the executors or other representatives of the parent, though in possession of funds, are not bound. It is true that if the parent die intestate, both the real and personal property will go to the children; but the parent is entitled, if he choose, to disinherit the children, and give away all his property to strangers, provided he execute his will in due form, which he may competently do on death-bed if in possession of his faculties.

Another important point of law, affecting the mutual relation of parent and child, is the right of the parent to the custody of the child. At common law it is the father who has the right to the custody of the child until majority at least, as against third parties, and no court will deprive him of such custody except on strong grounds. Whenever the child is entitled to property, the Court of Chancery so far controls his parental right, that if the father is shown to act with cruelty, or to be guilty of immorality, u guardian will be appointed. A court of common law also has often to decide in cases of children brought before it by habeas corpus, when parties have had the custody against the father’s will. In such cases, if the child is under fourteen, called the age of nurture, and the father is not shown to be cruel or immoral, the court will order the child to be delivered up to him; but if the child is above fourteen, or, as some say, above sixteen, the court will allow the child to choose where to go. So the father is entitled by his will to appoint a guardian to his children while they are under age. The mother had, at common law, no right as against the father to the custody of the children, however young; hut under a statute of 36 and 37 Vict. c. 12, she is entitled to the custody of the child while under sixteen years of age, or rather she is entitled to apply to the Court of Chancery for leave to keep the children, while under that age, provided she is unobjectionable in point of character; and access may be allowed to the father or guardian. If the parents separate by agreement, no stipulation will be enforced which is prejudicial to the child. In case of divorce or judicial separation, the Court of Divorce has power to direct who is to have the custody of the children.

2. Illegitimate Children.—It has been already stated that, at common law, the parent of a legitimate child is not bound to maintain it, and this is equally true of an illegitimate child—i. e., a child born not in wedlock. In strictness of law, an illegitimate child has no father, which means practically that in case of the death of the father without making a will, the law will not treat such child as entitled to the ordinary legal rights of a legitimate child—i. e., to a share of the father’s property. The child is not legally related to the father in this sense. With regard to the another, she also is not bound to maintain her child according to the common law; but the Poor-Law acts have made an important qualification of her rights and duties. As between the father and mother of the child, the law is this: The father is not bound even by the Poor-Laws to maintain the child, and the parish officers cannot now institute any proceeding whatever against him for this purpose; but the mother can, to a certain extent, enforce against him a contribution towards the child’s maintenance and education, or the guardians may do so. It is entirely discretionary on the mother to take any proceeding against the father, but if she chooses she can do so; and the first step is to go before a justice of the peace and obtain a summons of affiliation. The father is thus cited before the magistrate, and if the mother swears that he is the father of the child, and is corroborated in some material part of this statement by a third party, the magistrate may make an order against the father to pay the expenses of lying-in, and a weekly sum not exceeding five shillings till the child attains the age of sixteen. The mother may make this application either a few months before the birth, or within twelve months after the birth; and even after that time, provided she can prove that the putative father paid her some money on account of the child within such twelve months. The putative father, in these cases, is a competent and compellable witness.

The utmost, therefore, that the father can be made to contribute towards the child’s maintenance is only a portion of the whole, the chief burden being thrown on the mother, who is assumed to be the more blameable party. Though she is not bound by the common law to maintain her child, yet the Poor-Laws make her liable to maintain the child till it attains sixteen; and not only is she bound, but any man who marries her is also by statute bound to support all her illegitimate (and also legitimate) children till they attain sixteen. The result is, that illegitimate children under sixteen are better provided for by the present state of the law than legitimate children, inasmuch as the mother is positively bound to support her illegitimate child, and only to a less extent her legitimate child. As regards the custody of illegitimate children, the mother is the party exclusively entitled, for the father is not deemed, in point of law, to be related to such child. Yet if the father has, in point of fact, obtained the custody of such child, and the child is taken away by fraud, the courts will restore the child to his custody, so as to put him in the same position as before. Though illegitimate children will not succeed to the father’s property in the event of his dying without a will, there is nothing to prevent him making his will in their favor, provided he expressly name and identify them, and not leave it to them by the description of ‘his children,’ which in point of law they are not.

Scotland.— The law of parent and child in Scotland differs materially from the law of England and Ireland. In Scotland, a child may be born a bastard, and yet if the parents afterwards marry, this will legitimize the child, and give the child the right to succeed to the father’s property. A difficulty sometimes arises where, before the father and mother of a bastard marry, the father has had a legitimate family by another woman, in which case it is held that the bastard, though oldest in point of age, does not take precedence of the legitimate children. The law of Scotland also differs from that of England as regards the obligation of parent and child to maintain each other. There is a legal obligation on both parties to maintain each other if able to do so, and either may sue the other for aliment at common law; but this obligation extends only to what may be called subsistence money, and does not vary according to the rank of the party. Thus an earl is bound to pay no more for the aliment of his son than any other father. As regards all maintenance beyond mere subsistence, the law does not materially differ from that of England, and a contract must be proved against the father before he can be held liable to pay. The legal liability as between parent and child is qualified in this way by the common law, that if a person has both a father and a child living and able to support him, then the child is primarily liable, and next the grandchild, after whom comes the father, and next the grandfather. Not only are parent and child liable to support each other while the party supporting is alive, but if he die, his executors are also liable; and this liability is not limited by the age of majority, but continues during the life of the party supported. Such being the common law of Scotland, it was scarcely necessary, as in England, for the Poor-Law to supply any defect; but the Scotch Poor-Law supplements the common law, by imposing a penalty on a father or mother (though not vice versa) who neglects to support a child.

Another advantage which a Scotch child has over an English child is, that the father cannot disinherit it—at least so far as concerns his movable property; and even in case of heritable property, the rights of the child were so protected, that unless the father made away with his heritable property sixty days before his death, or while in sound health, it was too late to prejudice his heir-at-law; this rule was, however, abolished in 1870 by 34 and 35 Vict. c. 81. This was called the Law of Deathbed (q. v.); but as regards the father’s movable property, he cannot by any will he can make at any time of his life deprive the children of one-third, or, if their mother is dead, of one-half of such property. This is called the children’s right to Legitim (q. v.),a right which they can vindicate, whatever may be their age when their father dies. With regard to the custody of children in Scotland, the rule is, that the father is entitled to the custody as between him and the mother; but the Court of Session has power to regulate the custody in case the children are entitled to property, and the father is of an immoral or cruel character; and the court will also interfere to allow to the mother access to the children at certain times and seasons. Another important difference between a Scotch and English child is this, that whereas in England the father or guardian, or the Court of Chancery, has power to control the custody of the person of the child to a certain extent, until the child attains the age of 21. in Scotland such power entirely ceases when the child attains the age of 14 or 12, according as such child is male or female. At the age of 14, a boy, and at 12, a girl, in Scotland, is entire master or mistress of his or her movements, and can live where he or she pleases, regardless of any parent or court They can marry at that age at their own uncontrolled discretion, and act in all respects with the same freedom as adults. As regards the disposition of their property there are some restrictions, but as regards the disposal of their persons there are none, after the ages of 14 and 12 respectively.

2. Illegitimate Children.—The law of Scotland as to illegitimate children also differs in some respects from that of England. Both the father and mother of a bastard are bound by law to support such child, and the obligation transmits to the personal representatives of the father or mother. Moreover, by the Poor-Law statute both are liable to a penalty for neglecting to support the child. The mother of illegitimate children is entitled to their custody till the age of ten, if daughters, and if sons, till the age of seven; but the limit is not clearly defined. If the father support the child after the above age, he is entitled to the custody. The mother does not apply to a magistrate for a summons of affiliation in order to fix the paternity; but she may bring an action of filiation and aliment, in which the question of paternity is settled. The father may be judicially examined, and is a competent witness; and it is usual for the court to decree an aliment, varying from £4 per annum against laborers, up to £10 against persons in better circumstances. In Scotland, as in England, the father of a bastard child is not deemed related, in point of law, to such child; and if he desires to provide for such child, it must be done by deed or will, in which the child is identified and not merely described under the general designation of ‘child,’ which he is not.

PHO’TOPHONE is the name of a comparatively simple apparatus which may be said to achieve the feat of transmitting articulate speech to a distance along a beam of light. It was first described in 1880 by Professor Graham Bell, known in connection with the telephone, at the Boston meeting of the American Association; but already in 1878 its inventor had announced the possibility of ‘ hearing a shadow’ by means of a similar agency. The success of the photophone depends on the peculiarities of the metal selenium. Crystalline selenium offers a high degree of resistance to the passage of an electric current; it is eminently sensitive to light; and the resistance is less when exposed to light than in the dark, being in some cases only a fifteenth in the light of what it is in the dark.

Founding on these peculiarities, Professor Graham Bell, his friends and assistants, devised some fifty forms of apparatus for so varying the transmission of light to prepared selenium as to produce audible sound. In the photophone found most serviceable, the transmitter is a plane mirror of silvered microscope glass or thin mica; the receiver, fixed at a distance without any connection, is a parabolic reflecting mirror, in the focus of which is placed a sensitive selenium ‘cell,’ connected in local circuit with a battery and telephone. When the apparatus is used, a strong beam of light is concentrated by a lens in the plane mirror; the speaker directs his voice against the back of this mirror, which is thrown into vibrations corresponding with those of the voice. The reflected beam of light, to which similar vibrations are also communicated, is directed through a lens to the receiving mirror, and creates in the selenium cell a rapidly intermittent current, which at the end of the telephone attached becomes audible again as vocal sound. When first described, the photophone had been used effectively with a distance of 230 yards (over a furlong) between transmitter and receiver. The rays of the oxyhydrogen light, or of an ordinary kerosene lamp, suffice for transmitting articulate speech. The loudest sounds obtained from the photophone were produced by means of a perforated disc, noiselessly revolving so as rapidly to interrupt the light in transmission.

It was also found that a very audible sound could be procured from the selenium without the aid of telephone and battery. A beam of intermittent light will produce a strong musical note from the selenium. Further experiment showed that selenium is not the only substance thus sensitive to light. Still louder sounds than these obtained from the selenium directly, though not articulate, were got from diaphragms of hard india-rubber and of antimony; and sounds of varying intensity were given out by many other substances, including gold, silver, platinum, copper, zinc, lead, paper, parchment, and wood.

PHRENO’LOGY is a Greek compound signifying a discourse on the mind, but is used in a more limited sense to mean a theory of mental-philosophy founded on the observation and discovery of the functions of the brain, in so far as it is concerned in intellectual and emotional phenomena. Phrenology takes into view likewise the influence of all other parts of the body, and of external agents affecting these, upon the brain.

The founder of this system was Dr. Franz Joseph Gall (q. v,), who died in 1828. In Britain it has been amply expounded by his pupil Dr. Spurzheim (q. v.), by George and Andrew Combe (q. v.), by Dr. Elliotson of London, and others. In America, Dr. Charles Caldwell has been its ablest advocate. Gall’s method of investigating the functions of the brain is that which, applied to other organs, has led to the discovery of their functions, but which had never before been systematically applied to the brain. When a physiologist wished to ascertain the function of any part of the body, he did not rest satisfied with examining its structure, and speculating on the purposes for which that structure seemed to be adapted. He observed what kind of function appeared during life as the invariable accompaniment of the presence and action of that particular part; and. by repeated and careful observation, he at last succeeded in discovering the function. The knowledge thus obtained was afterwards verified and completed by examination of the structure, and observation of the effects of its injury or diseases. To the adoption of this principle in studying the functions of the brain, Gall was led by observing at school the concomitance of a quick and retentive memory of words with a peculiar appearance of the eye, which he afterwards found to be caused by a large development of a particular part of the brain. At school, at college, and in many other places, and under the most different circumstances, the same concomitance of talent with development of brain came under his notice so frequently, as to suggest to him the probability that there might be discovered by the same method a connection of other talents and dispositions with other portions “of the brain. It was by the diligent application of the method of inquiry which accident bad thus suggested to him, and not, as some suppose, by the exercise of his imagination, that Dr. Gall was at last led to conclude, first, that the brain is an aggregate of many different parts, each serving for the manifestation of a particular mental faculty; and, secondly, that, all other conditions being equal, the size of each of these cerebral organs is a measure of the power of its function. These two propositions constitute the distinctive or fundamental principles of Phrenology. The first of them, however, is not new.

The impossibility of reconciling actual phenomena with the notion of a single organ of the mind has, for many centuries, suggested the probability of a plurality of organs in the brain. But the phrenologists hold that Dr. Gall was the first to demonstrate the fact, and to make any considerable progress in determining with what parts of the brain the various intellectual and emotional faculties and susceptibilities are connected.

That man, in his present state, cannot think, will, or feel without the intervention of the brain, is generally admitted by physiologists, and appears from even the fact that, by pressure applied to it, consciousness is at once suspended. That it is not a single organ is a priori probable from such considerations as these : 1.It is a law in physiology that different functions are never performed by the same organ. The stomach, liver, heart, eyes, ears, have each a separate duty. Different nerves are necessary to motion and feeling, and there is no example of confusion amongst them. 2. The mental powers do not all come at once, as they would were the brain one organ. They appear successively, and the brain undergoes a corresponding change. 3. Genius varies in different individuals: one has a turn, as it is called, for one thing, and another for something different. 4. Dreaming is explained by the doctrine of distinct organs which can act or rest alone. 5. Partial insanity, or madness on one point with sanity on every other, similarly points to a plurality of cerebral organs. 6. Partial injuries of the brain, affecting the mental manifestations of the injured parts, but leaving the other faculties sound, tend to the same conclusion.. 7. There could be no such state of mind as the familiar one where our feelings contend with each other, if the brain were one organ.

These are grounds for presuming that the brain is not single but a cluster of organs, or at least that it is capable of acting in parts as well as in whole. For this conclusion the phrenologists consider that they have found satisfactory proofs in numerous observations, showing that particular manifestations of mind are proportioned, in intensity and frequency of recurrence, to the size of expansion of particular parts of the brain—this law being subject to modification in the case of the brain, as in that of the muscles and other parts of the body, by differences of health, quality, exercise, &c.

If size of organ, cæteris peribus, is the measure of the vigor of function, it is of great moment in what region of the brain the organs are largest—whether in the animal, moral, or intellectual. On this preponderance depends the character. Two brains may be exactly alike in size generally, yet the characters may be perfect contrasts to each other.

It is held by phrenologists—1. That by accurate observation of human actions, it is possible to discover the strength of the dispositions and intellectual powers of men; 2. That the form of the brain can, in normal subjects not beyond middle age, be ascertained with sufficient accuracy from the external form of the head—the brain, though the softer substance, being what determines the shape of the skull; 3. That the organs or parts of which the brain is composed appear on its surface in folds or convolutions, which have a well-ascertained fibrous connection with the medulla oblongata, which unites the brain to the spinal cord; 4. That the brain being divided into two equal parts called hemispheres, in each of which the same organ occurs, all the organs are double, like the ears and eyes. See BRAIN. But when the term organ is used, both organs are meant.

It is true that where strength is most needful, the skull is thicker than at other places; but this is not overlooked by phrenologists, nor do they fail to warn observers against mistaking for signs of cerebral development the bony processes and ridges which serve for the attachment of muscles to the skull. See SKULL. They recognize also, as we shall see, the uncertainty often occasioned by the frontal sinus.

Besides the brain proper, there is a smaller brain, lying below the hinder part of the main brain, and called the cerebellum. The brain is divided into the anterior, middle, and posterior lobes. The anterior lobe contains the organs of the intellectual faculties; the posterior lobe and lower range of the middle one are the regions of the animal propensities; while the moral sentiments are stated to have their organs developed on the top or coronal region of the head.

Phrenologists distinguish between power and activity in the mental faculties. Power, in whatever degree possessed, is capability of feeling, perceiving, or thinking; while activity is readiness and quickness in the exercise of power.

The powers of mind, as manifested by the organs, are called faculties. A faculty may be defined to be a particular power of thinking or feeling. A faculty is regarded as elementary or primary—1. When it exists in one kind of animal, and not in another; 2. When it varies in the two sexes of the same species; 3. When it is not in proportion to the other faculties of the same individual; 4. When it appears earlier or later in life than the other faculties; 5. When it may act or repose singly; 6. When it is propagated from parent to child; and 7. When it may singly preserve its soundness, or singly become deranged or extinct. The faculties are usually divided by phrenologists into two orders—FEELINGS AND INTELLECT, or AFFECTIVE and INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES- The feelings are divided into two genera—the Propensities and the Sentiments; while the Intellectual embrace the Perceptive or Knowing, and the Reflective Faculties. This classification, however, is avowedly imperfect.

The following is a representation of the human head in four points of view, showing the positions of the cerebral organs, according to Mr.. Combe:

1. Amativeness, or sexual love, is believed to have for its organ the cerebellum, or at least a portion of it. As the basis of domestic life, this faculty is of great importance, and its regulation has ever been one of the prime objects of moralists and legislators.

2. Philoprogenitiveness, or love of offspring, is generally strongest in the female. Its organ is one of the easiest to distinguish in the human head. Those who are flat and perpendicular there, instead of being delighted, are annoyed by children. The feeling is said to give a tender sympathy with weakness and helplessness in general. The most savage races must have affection for their young, or they would become extinct. The organ, like the other cerebral parts, may become diseased; and insanity on the subject of children often occurs.

3. Inhabitiveness (called by Mr. Combe Concentrativeness) has its organ immediately above the preceding. Dr. Gall did not discover its function; and Dr. Spurzheim, observing it large in persons attached to their native place, or any place in which they had long dwelt, called it Inhabitiveness. Mi’. Combe thought it has a more extended sphere of action. He observed it large in those who can detain continuously their feelings and ideas in” their minds; while the feelings and ideas of others pass away like the images in a mirror, so that they are incapable of taking systematic views of a subject, or concentrating their powers to bear on one point. The organ is stated as only probable, till further facts are obtained.

4. Adhesiveness.—The organ of this feeling was discovered by Gall, from being found very large in a lady remarkable for the warmth and steadiness of her friendships. It attaches men and gregarious animals to each other, and is the foundation of that pleasure which mankind feel in bestowing and receiving friendship, and in associating with each other. Acting with Amative-ness, it gives constancy and duration to the attachment of the married. Generally speaking, Adhesiveness is strongest and its organ largest in woman.

5. Combativeness.—Dr. Gall discovered the organ of this propensity by a vast number of observations on the heads of persons fond of fighting. Dr. Spurzheim extended its function to contention in general, whether physical or moral. Those deficient in it show that over-gentle and indolent character which yields to aggression, is easily repelled by the appearance of difficulty and trouble, and naturally seeks the shades and eddy-corners of life.

6. Destructiveness.—The propensity to destroy is abundantly manifested by man and carnivorous animals, and when too strong or ill-regulated is the source of cruelty and wanton mischief. As a defensive power,’ it is of high utility, Anger, resentment, and indignation spring from it. A small endowment is one of the elements of a ’soft’ character; while persons who have much of it are generally marked by an energetic, and probably fierce and passionate character.

Alimentiveness and Love of Life.—Some of the recent phrenological works treat in this part of the order of the faculties, of a faculty of Alimentiveness, or the propensity to eat and drink, and also of another which follows—viz., Love of Life. The first being represented as no more than probable, and the second as only conjectural, they have no number allotted to them on the bust. The place assigned to Alimentiveness is marked by a cross on the side-view of the bust. Mr. Combe suggests that the organ of the Love of Life is probably a convolution at the base of the middle lobe of the brain, the size of which cannot be ascertained during life.

7. Secretiveness is the propensity to conceal, which in excess assumes the form of cunning. It helps animals both to avoid and to prey upon each other. In abuse, it leads to lying, hypocrisy, and fraud, and with Acquisitiveness disposes to theft and swindling. The organ is subject to disease, and cunning madmen are difficult to deal with. Disease here often leads to belief in plots and conspiracies formed against the patient.

8. Acquisitiveness.—The existence of a cerebral organ for the desire of property is held by phrenologists to prove that this is not, as many have thought, a derived or secondary tendency. It is what Lord Karnes calls the ‘ hoarding appetite.’ This explains the miser’s desire to accumulate money, without regard to its use in the purchase of other enjoyment. When the organ is diseased, persons in easy circumstances are sometimes prone to pilfer everything of value, and often of no value, which comes in their way.

9. Constructiveness is the impulse to fashion and construct by changing the forms of matter. Many of the inferior animals possess it, as the beaver, bee, and birds. Physical nature consists of raw materials which Constructiveness prompts and enables man to adapt to his purposes.

10. Self-esteem is the source of that self-complacency which enhances the pleasure of life, gives the individual confidence in his own powers, and enables him to apply them to the best advantage. It is sometimes called proper pride, or self-respect, in which form it aids the moral sentiments in resisting temptations to meanness and vice. Its deficiency renders a man too humble, and the world takes him at his word, and push him aside. Its excess produces arrogance, selfishness, disobedience, and tyranny. Self-esteem becomes insane perhaps more frequently than any other faculty, and then shows itself in extravagant notions of self-importance. Such maniacs fancy themselves kings, emperors, and even the Supreme Being. The organ is generally larger in men than in women; and more men are insane from pride than women.

11. Love of Approbation is the desire of the good opinion, admiration, and praise of others. It is an excellent guard upon morals as well as manners. The loss of character, to those largely endowed with it, is worse than death. If the moral sentiments be strong, the desire will be for honest fame; but in meaner characters, the love of glory is a passion that has deluged the world with blood in all ages. Shamelessness is the effect of its deficiency, often observed in criminals. The organ oftener becomes diseased in women than in men, as in women it is more active than in the other sex generally.

12. Cautiousness.—The organ of this faculty is found large in persons much troubled with fears, hesitations, and doubts. Its normal character is well expressed by its name. When diseased, as it often is, the organ produces causeless dread of evil, despondency, and often suicide.

13. . Benevolence is the desire to increase the happiness and lessen the misery of others. When strong, it prompts to active, laborious, and continued exertions, and, unless Acquisitiveness be powerful, to liberal giving to promote its favorite object. Unregulated by Conscientiousness and Intellect, Benevolence degenerates into profusion and facility. It often coexists with Destructiveness in great force; as it did in Burns, whose poem on a Wounded Hare expresses both feelings highly excited.

14. Veneration has for its object whoever and whatever is deemed venerable by the individual. One man venerates what another treats with indifference, because his understanding leads him to consider that particular object as venerable, while his neighbor deems it otherwise. But any man with a large endowment of the organ will have a tendency to consider others as superior to himself. Veneration is the basis of loyalty, and, having the Deity for its highest object, forms an element in religious feeling. So liable is its organ to disease, that high devotional excitement is one of the most common forms of insanity.

15. Firmness is the source of fortitude, constancy, perseverance, and determination; when too powerful, it produces obstinacy, stubbornness, and infatuation. The want of it is a great defect in character. The English soldier is more persistent than the French, although in courage and spirit they are equal.

16. Conscientiousness gives the love of justice, but intellect is necessary to show on which side justice lies. The judge must hear

both sides before deciding, and his very wish to be just will prompt him to do so. Conscientiousness not only curbs our faculties when too powerful, but stimulates those that are too weak, and incites us to duty even against strong inclinations. The existence of Conscientiousness as an independent element in the human constitution, explains some apparent inconsistencies in human conduct—that a man, for instance is kind, forgiving, even devout, and yet not just. The organ is commonly larger in Europeans than in Asiatics and Africans; very generally, it is deficient in the savage brain. When it is diseased, the insanity consists in morbid self-reproach, belief in imaginary debts, and the like.

17. Hope was regarded as a primary faculty by Spurzheim, but was never admitted by Gall, who considered it as a function of every faculty that desires. Dr. Spurzheim answered, that we desire much of which we have no hope. It produces gaiety and cheerfulness, looks on the sunny side of everything, and paints the future with bright colors. When not well regulated, Hope leads to rash speculation, and, in combination with Acquisitiveness, to gambling, both at the gambling-table and in the counting-house. It tends to make the individual credulous of promised good, and often indolent.

18. Wonder.—Dr. Grail found the organ of tin’s faculty large in seers of visions and dreamers of dreams, and in those who love to dwell on the marvelous, and easily believe in it. Persons who have it powerful are fond of news, especially if striking and wonderful, and are always expressing astonishment; their reading is much in the region of the marvelous, tales of wonder, of enchanters, ghosts, and witches. When the sentiment is excessive or diseased, it produces that peculiar fanaticism which attempts miracles, and (with Language active) speaks in unknown tongues.

19. Ideality.—The organ of this faculty was observed by Dr. Gall to be prominent in the busts and portraits of deceased, and in the heads of a great number of living, poets. This confirmed to him the old classical adage, that the poet is born, not made, He called it the organ of Poetry. The name of Ideality was given to it by Dr. Spurzheim. This faculty is said to delight in the perfect, the exquisite, the beau-ideal, the beautiful and sublime. The organ is usually small in criminals and other coarse and brutal characters, for it is essential to refinement. It prompts to elegance and ornament in dress and furniture, and gives a taste for poetry, painting, statuary, and architecture. A point of interrogation is placed on the bust on the back part of the region of this organ, conjectured to be a different organ, but one allied to Ideality. The existence of the faculty of Ideality is held by phrenologists to prove that the sentiment of beauty is an original emotion of the mind, and to settle the controversy on that subject. See -ÆSTHETICS-

20. Wit, or the Sentiment of the Ludicrous.—The phrenological writers have discussed at great length, and with not a little controversy, the metaphysical nature or analysis of this faculty. We need not follow them into this inquiry, as most of them are agreed that by means of it we feel and enjoy the ludicrous.

21. Imitation.—Dr. Gall found the prominence of this organ accompanied by instinctive, and often irrepressible mimicry. The tendency to imitate is evidently innate; from the earliest years, it makes the young follow the customs and the manner of speech of those around them, and so preserves a convenient uniformity in the manners and externals of society. Celebrated actors always possess it strong, and by its means imitate the supposed manner, and even feel the sentiments, of their characters, Its organ is found large also in painters and sculptors of eminence. In its morbid states, the impulse to mimic become? irresistible.

We now come to the Intellectual Faculties, or those which make us acquainted with things that exist, and with their qualities and relations. Dr. Spurzheim divided them into three genera— 1. The External Senses; 2. The Internal Senses, or Perceptive Faculties; 3. The Reflecting Faculties. The external senses, as generally received, are five in number —Touch, Taste, Smell, Hearing and Sight. There seem to be two more—namely, the Sense of Hunger and Thirst, and the Muscular Sense, or that by which we feel the state of our muscles as acted upon by force and resistance. Without this last sense, we could not keep our balance, or suit our movements to the laws of the mechanical world. Whether each sense has a special cerebral organ in addition to its external apparatus and nerves, is a question regarded by phrenologists as still undetermined.

22. Individuality, the first in the list of the perceptive faculties, is not easily defined. It is said to take cognizance of individual objects as such, e. g., a horse or a tree. Other knowing faculties perceive the form, color, size, and weight of the horse, but Individuality is thought to unite all these, and give the idea of a horse. It is regarded as the storehouse of knowledge of things simply existing. When it is- strong, without being accompanied by reflecting power, the mind is full of facts, but unable to reason from them. After puberty the size of the organ of Individuality, as well as of the neighboring organs of Size, Weight, Coloring, and Locality—all situated behind the superciliary ridge of the skull— is often rendered doubtful by the existence of a hollow space, of uncertain width and extent between the two plates of the skull. This hollow is called the frontal sinus; and when it is large, there may be a great projection of the bone over the eyes, without a corresponding projection of brain within. When this part of the

skull is flat, however, the organs must be at least as defective as ;lie flatness indicates. Owing to the source of uncertainty here (minted out, and the small ness of the organs behind the eyebrows, ;he functions of those parts of the brain are not regarded as being so well ascertained as those of the larger organs, nor will a cautions phrenologist be too ready to pronounce them large.

23. Form.—When the organ of Form is large, the eyes are wide asunder. Dr. Gall discovered it in persons remarkable for recognizing faces after long intervals, and although perhaps only once and briefly seen. The celebrated Cuvier owed much of his success in comparative anatomy to his large organ of Form. Decandolle mentions that ‘ his [Cuvier’s] memory was particularly remarkable in what related to forms, considered in the widest sense of that word; the figure of an animal seen in reality or in drawing never left his mind, and served him as a point of comparison for ;ill similar objects.’

24. Size.—Every object has size or dimension; hence a faculty seems necessary to cognize this quality. The supposed organ is situated at the inner extremities of the eybrows, where they turn upon the nose. A perception of size (including distance) is important to our movements and actions, and essential to our safety.

25. Weight.—A power to perceive the different degrees of weight and force is likewise essential to man’s movements, safety, and even existence. Phrenologists have generally localized the organ of that power in the part of the brain marked 25 on the bust.

26. Coloring.—The organ of this faculty is large in great painters, especially great colorists, and gives an arched appearance to the eyebrow; for example, in Rubens, Titian, Rembrandt, Salvator Rosa, and Claude Lorraine. In cases of color-blindess, it is found small. Many persons, though able to distinguish colors, have no perception of their harmonies : for this perception, a higher endowment of the faculty seems to be required.

27. Locality.—Dr. Gall was led to the discovery of this faculty by comparing his own difficulties with a companion’s facilities, in finding their way through the woods, where they had placed snares for birds, and marked nests, when studying natural history. Every material object must exist in some part of space, and that part of space becomes place in virtue of being so occupied. Objects themselves are cognized by Individuality; but their place, the direction where they lie, the way to them, fall within the sphere of Locality. Its organ is large in those who find their way easily, and vividly remember places in which they have been. It materially aids the traveler, and is supposed to give a love for traveling. The organ was large in Columbus, Cook, Park, Clarke, and other travelers.

28. Number.—The organ of this faculty is placed at the outer extremity of the eyebrows and angle of the eye. It occasions, when large, a fulness or breadth of that part of the head, and often pushes downward the external corner of the eye. When it is small, the part is flat and narrow between the eye and the temple. Dr. Gall called the faculty le sens des rapports des nombres (the Sense of the Relations of Numbers), and assigned to it not only arithmetic, but mathematics in general. D& Spurzheim more correctly limits its functions to arithmetic, algebra, and logarithms; geometry being the products of other faculties, particularly Size and Locality. Dr. Gall first observed the organ in a boy who could multiply and divide, mentally, ten or twelve by three figures in less time than expert arithmeticians could with their pencils. Many such examples are on record.

29. Order.—The organ of this faculty is said to be large in those who are remarkable for love of method, neatness, arrangement, and symmetry, and are annoyed by confusion and irregularity. In savages, whose habits are slovenly, filthy, and disgusting, the organ is comparatively small.

30. Eventuality.—The organ is situated in the very center of the forehead, and when large, gives to this part of the head a rounded prominency. Individuality has been called the faculty of nouns; Eventuality is the faculty of verbs. The first perceives merely things that exist; the other, motion, change, event, history. The most powerful knowing minds have a large endowment of both Individuality and Eventuality; and such persons, even with a moderate reflecting capability, are the clever men in society—the acute men of business—the ready practical lawyers. The organ of Eventuality is generally well developed in children, and their appetite for stories corresponds.

31. Time.—Some persons are called walking time-pieces; they can tell the hour without looking at a watch; and some even can do so, nearly, when waking in the night. The impulse to mark time is too common, too natural, and too strong, not to be the result