Vickipedia

CO’MMUNISM, the name given to one class of the arrangements by which certain speculators have proposed to dispense with those laws of social and political economy which are supposed to keep society together, through the influence of the domestic affections and the spirit of competition, and to substitute in their stead a set of artificial rules for the government of mankind. The word Socialist has generally been applied to those who only propose to interfere with labor by abolishing competition and wages, leaving men to work under the influence of public spirit, and making an equal division of the produce. See SOCIALISM. The term communist, on the other hand, has been applied to those who go a step further, and propose to abolish the relation of husband and wife, along with the system of domestic government which is founded on the parental authority. While Louis Blanc lay be considered the head of the Socialists—though his ultimate aim was work according to capacity, and payment according to wants—the representatives of the Communists are Robert Owen, St. Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, and Enfantin.

Although we usually consider C. an especially French fallacy, the first consistent practical teacher of it was our own countryman, Robert Owen. published in 1813, A New View of Society, or Essays on the Principle of the Formation of the Human Character and the Application of the Principle to Practice—in which he printed in large capital letters, as the keynote of his system, the following announcement: ‘ That any character—from the best to the worst, from the most ignorant to the most enlightened—may be given to any community, even to the world at large, by applying certain means, which are to a great extent at the command and under the control, or easily made so, of those who possess the government of nations.’ No alarm was felt either at such a text or the comments made on it; nor did the world see what the author meant by the hint that there were special artificial means for improving the breed, as it were, of mankind, until he struck at the root of the domestic organization, by such announcements as the following : ‘The affections of parents for their own children are too strong for their judgments ever to do justice to themselves, their children, or the public in the education of their own offspring—even if private families possessed the machinery (which they never do) to well-manufactured character from birth.’ He formed an organization, too complex to be here detailed, by which families were to be subjected to a discipline which, that it might be perfectly uniform, should be carried out in parallelograms. Anticipating the results, he said : ‘These new associations can scarcely be formed before it will be discovered that by the most simple and easy regulations all the natural wants of human nature may be abundantly supplied; and the principle of selfishness—in the sense in which that term is here used—will cease to exist, for want of an adequate motive to produce it.’ He attested his reliance on the efficacy of his invention by sinking his own fortune in an attempt to build a parallelogram. It was commenced in the year 1825, at Orbiston, in Lanarkshire; but he did not meet with sufficient cooperation, and as his own funds only sufficed to build one corner of the parallelogram, it was impossible to give effect to arrangements which were fitted only for a completed edifice in that geometrical form. A considerable number of people—about 200, it is said—lived for some time in the building, little to their own advantage or that of the neighbors, who were naturally prejudiced against them, and probably exaggerated their irregularities; the building was soon deserted, and afterwards was totally obliterated.

Owen had another opportunity of trying his parallelogram organization in 1843, when ‘ Harmony Hall’ was established in Hampshire by the zealous efforts of his followers, who formed a sort of sect in England. Still his theory had, as he deemed it, anything but fair play, since so far did his disciples depart from that absolute undeviating conformity to the ‘ rational’ system, as laid down by him, that they got tired of his incessant reiteration of it, and deposed him from his office of ‘ President of the Congress. ‘

Attempts to realize C. abroad were not more fortunate. Fourier’s system was to be realized in ‘phalanxes,’ each containing 400 rallies, or about 1800 persons. A sum of about half a million of pounds is said to have been spent in the establishment of a ‘phalanstery ‘ at Rambouillet. It failed, and the founder of the system, like Owen, attributed the failure to the scheme being but imperfectly developed. The St. Simonians established a college or corporation at Menilmontant, with a ‘ supreme father’ at their head. The leaders were brought to trial by the government of Louis Phillippe, on a charge of undermining morality and religion. They were subjected to imprisonment, and not having public feeling with them, they were unable to bear up against the contumely thus thrown on them.

Communism, in the sense of having all things in common, is it to be confounded with the idea for which the communists of Paris fought in 1871 (seePARIS);that idea was political rather than social, although the same persons may often hold both doctrines. Commune is the designation of the lowest administrative division in France, corresponding in rural districts to an English parish or rather township, and in regard to cities, being equivalent to municipality. The communist doctrine is, that every such commune, or at least every important city commune like Paris, Marseille, &c., should be a kind of independent state in itself, and France merely a federation of such stales. This idea has taken deep hold of the extreme democrats, not only among the town populations of France, but also in Spain, and, to a less extent, in other parts of the continent. It was the very opposite idea for which the great civil war in the United States was fought and won.

TATTOO’ING, a custom extensively prevalent among savage nations, of marking the skin with figures of various kinds, by means of slight incisions or punctures and a coloring matter. The term is of Polynesian origin, and is said to be derived from a verb ta, which signifies to strike. Tattooing is almost universal in the South Sea Islands, except where Christianity and civilization have put an end to it. New Zealanders’ heads, exhibiting tattooing, are amongst the curiosities to be seen in museums; and at one time it was very common for the masters of vessels visiting New Zealand to purchase them and bring them home, although there is too much reason to believe that the price paid for them stimulated the feuds of the natives. The tattooing of the New Zealanders and other South Sea Islanders often covers the whole face, and sometimes also the chest, arms, and other parts of the body with elaborate patterns. It is performed in youth, and marks the transition from boyhood to manhood, like the assumption of the toga virilis among the ancient Romans. The operation is accompanied with superstitious ceremonies, and is attended with considerable pain, which, of course, is to be endured with manly indifference. An instrument of bone, toothed on the edge, is employed, which is applied to the skin, and stuck with a piece of wood, having first been dipped in a thick mixture made by rubbing down charcoal with a little water. The marks which result are permanent, and appear black on a brown skin; although they are dark blue on the skin of a European. Tattooing is, or has been, practised in almost all parts of the world. It seems to be one of the practises prohibited to the Jews, in Lev. xix. 28, ‘ Ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh for the dead, nor print any marks upon you,’ from which may be inferred its prevalence among the surrounding tribes in the days of Moses, and its connection with their superstitions. The Bedouin Arabs, the Tunguses, and other eastern tribes, and many tribes of American Indians, practise it at the present day. Among the Bedouins, it is a favorite mode of female adornment. It prevailed among the ancient Thracians, and was distinctive of high rank. The ancient Britons also practised it, and traces of it appear to have lingered in England till after the Norman Conquest. Perhaps the practise of sailors to print anchors and other marks on their arms, may be regarded as a relic of it still subsisting.

CALIFO’RNIA. This name was at first applied to a peninsula on the west side of Mexico, but was gradually extended to an indefinite portion of the adjoining continent, as far north as the parallel of 42°. The original C., however, and its augmentation were distinguished from each other as Old and New, Lower and Upper. In 1848, partly by conquest and partly by purchase, continental C., down to the parallel of 32° 28′, was ceded to the United States. After existing as a territory for two years, it was, in 1850, constituted one of the United States, bounded N. by Oregon, E. by Nevada and Arizona, S. by Lower C., and W. by the Pacific. Between the two Californias of the present clay, the American one and the Mexican one, there is nothing in common but the name.—1. Mexican C. is the peninsula above mentioned, which, though considerably longer than Great Britain, is yet so narrow as to be very little larger than Scotland. From end to end, it is one ridge of mountains, which here and there rise to about 5000 feet above the sea. A few favored spots yield fruits and grains in abundance; but generally speaking, the productions are unimportant, for even trees, and those of no great size, are found only towards the southern extremity of the country. The population does not exceed 25,000—the oldest and most considerable town, Loretto, on the east side, containing barely 1000 inhabitants.

On the west side is the magnificent harbor, peculiarly on a coast so destitute of shelter, formed by the Bay of Magdalena and the island of Santa Margarita.—2. American C., vaguely claimed, under the name of New Albion, by Drake for England in 1579, lay unoccupied till 1767, when it was invaded by Franciscan friars, the successors in Mexico of the newly expelled Jesuits. These zealous apostles, backed, when necessary, by armed coadjutors, planted various missions, bringing under their influence, such as it was, the great mass of the aborigines. Under such circumstances, the new province became pre-eminent, even in Spanish America, for everything that could paralyze the progress of a community. Anglo-Saxon speculators engrossed most of the trade; American trappers walked through the land as if it had been their own; the Muscovites established, in the north, a town under the ominous title of Ross or Russia; and a Swiss adventurer of the name of Sutter, who had carved out for himself a New Helvetia, virtually set the government at defiance. But the discovery of gold in Sutter’s mill-race during 1847, and the political transfer of 1848, taken together, changed, as if by a miracle, the aspect of affairs. The matchless harbor of San Francisco became the grand mart on the Pacific, presenting a center of attraction to the restless and energetic of every race and every clime. Between 1850 and 1855, the population increased from 92,597to 327,000; in 1870it was560,247; and in 1880 it was 864,686, of whom 75,000 were Chinese. The total yield of gold in this state up to 1875 was about 1,000,000,000 dollars. In 1874 the value of the gold and silver produced was 20,300,531 dollars, and in 1881, 19,870,000 dollars. C. possesses the richest quicksilver mine in the world—that of New Almaden— which at one time produced from 2,500,000 lbs. to 3,500,000 lbs. per annum. It now yields about 1,000,000 lbs. In 1864, 15,000 tons of copper were exported, to be smelted at Swansea and Boston, but not nearly so much is now produced. Platinum has been found in many of the placers. There is coal in nearly all the coast counties; and asphaltum is produced. Other mineral products are iron, tin, and borax. In the year 1881-82, C. shipped 870,472 barrels of flour, and 22,170,000 centals of wheat. In 1881, there were 100,000 acres of vineyards, and the produce of the vintage was 9,000,000 gallons of wine.

Silk culture is making rapid progress; and the woollen factories of C. consume nearly 6,000,000 lbs. of wool annually, while about 30,000,000 Lbs. are exported. Manufacturing industry has lately greatly increased, the chief manufactures being woollen goods, flour, iron, glass, wine, sugar, and silk. The amount of taxable property, real and personal, as assessed in 1878, was 584,583,651 dollars. The state debt amounted in the same year to 3,403,000 dollars.

The country is mountainous, and is cut into coast and interior by a subordinate range from Oregon. The interior is subdivided into the valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joachim—two rivers from the north-east and the south-east, which enter the noble haven of San Francisco. The former is the chief seat of the ‘ diggings.’ Since the completion of the Pacific Railway, terminating in San Francisco, C. has been visited by many pleasure-seekers attracted by its magnificent scenery. The most celebrated district is the Yosemite Valley (q. v.). C., with a lovely and salubrious climate, produces fruits and grains freely, under advantageous circumstances of soil and situation. In the growth of timber, however, it appears to be almost unrivalled. Fremont measured one tree that was 21 feet in diameter, or 66 in circumference; and another has been seen, which, with a length of 150 yards, is nearly 120 feet in girth. A Sequoia gigantea in Mariposa county is 274 feet in height. Besides San Francisco, the state contains the cities of Sacramento (the capital), Oakland, Stockton, San Jose, Los Angelos, Marysville, and San Diego, with a fine port. The university of C., near Oakland, was established in 1869 : there are besides several colleges.

CHEMICAL TOYS, which in the course of recent years have been brought prominently before the public, deserve a brief notice. ‘Pharaoh’s Serpents,’ which have been already described in the article SULPHOCYANOGEN, are highly poisonous, and during combustion evolve dangerous vapors. Larmes du Diable or ‘Crocodiles’ Tears,’ are formed of metallic sodium, burn with extreme violence if thrown into water, or even if moistened with water, or heated, and scatter particles of caustic alkali, which may inflict serious burns. ‘ Sunshine in Winter Evenings,’ ‘ Fiery Swords,’ &c. are formed of magnesium, and, like the preceding, may cause serious burns. Pyroxylin, which is identical with gun-cotton, is the active agent in the various toys known as ‘Will-o’-the-wisp Paper,’ ‘Parlor Lightning,’ ‘Fireflies,’ &c. The use of these toys in teaching rudimentary chemistry to children and young persons is quite incommensurate with their danger.

July 1.-The English Cabinet decided to abandon coercion in Ireland.-Ice and snow appeared in Southwestern Virginia.

July 2.-500 Mormon converts arrived in New York.

July 3.-400 policemen guarded the cars and property of the Chicago Street Railway from the strikers.

July 4.-The Province of Murcia, Spain, was reported as depopulated by cholera.

July 5.-Cholera appeared in Toulon and Marseilles, France. -The Pall Mall Gazette, London, published revolting and sensational details in regard to the licentiousness of London.

July 8.-Feverish excitement prevailed in Mexico inconsequence of the Government’s financial troubles, and several arrests were made.-General Grant received a visit from a deputation of Mexican editors journeying in the United States.

July 9–The University College of Wales was burned at a loss of $200,000.

July 10.-The French Chamber of Deputies made an appropriation of $800.000 to be expended in educating every seventh child born in French families, where such aid might be needed.-The President ordered General Sheridan to go in person to the scene of the Indian troubles in the Indian territory.

July 11.-Great damage was done in Southern Hungary by floods.

July 13.-The New Orleans Exposition property was sold at auction for $175,000.

July 15.-The grounds around and about the Falls of Niagara were formally opened as a public park.

July 23.-The Princess Beatrice was married at Whippingham Church, Isle of Wight. England, to Prince Henry of Battenberg, a penniless German princeling.-Ulysses S. Grant, the conqueror of the American Rebellion, ended his career at the age of sixty-three, at Mount McGregor, New York, and his character now stands for the judgment of history. [Ulysses S. Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Clermont County. Ohio, April 27, 1822; graduated at the military academy of West Point in 1843, and served under General Taylor in the war with Mexico, 1846, up to the capture of Monterey. His regiment was then transferred to the expedition under General Scott, and he took part in every action from Vera Cruz to Mexico, and was brevetted first lieutenant and captain for meritorious conduct at Molino del Key and Chapultepec. In 1852. he served in Oregon; but, in 1854. resigned his commission, and settled at St. Louis, Missouri, whence, in 1859, he moved to Galena, Illinois, and engaged in the leather trade. At the breaking out of the rebellion he returned to the army and served as colonel, rapidly advancing to the chief command of the United States Army. He was twice elected President, and one of the most memorable events of his administration was the settlement of the Alabama question in 1871.]

July 24.-The President issued a proclamation declaring void the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indian territory leases to cattlemen, and requiring the latter to remove within forty days.

July 28.-Sir Moses Monteflore, the illustrious Hebrew philanthropist, died at his home in Ramsgate, England. He had reached the patriarchal age of one hundred years. [The Monteflores were originally from Spain. Driven from that country they took refuge in Italy, where they amassed wealth. After Manasseh-ben-Israel’s intercession with Cromwell for the admission of Jews to England, they took up their residence in that country. Moses Monteflore. the son of Joseph Elias and Rachel Monteflore, was born in Leghorn. Italy, October 24th, 1784, during a visit of his parents to that place. At an early age he entered commercial life in London, becoming first a clerk, and afterward a stockbroker. In 1824 the death of his father left him in possession of a considerable fortune, and a year later lie retired from the Stock Exchange. Early in life his heart had been touched by the miserable condition of his people, the Jews, abroad, and he had long nurtured plans for redressing it. Sir Moses Monteflore was elected Sheriff of London in 1837, and soon after was knighted by the young Queen who then came to the British throne; and the honors he received from royalty in many lands indicate that he possessed a charm of character which won the hearts of all classes. In his munificent benefactions he knew no race distinctions, and it was his gift of $1.000 winch started the fund of $110,000 for the relief of the Christians on Mount Lebanon a quarter of a century ago.]

July 30.-The half-breed Kiel was put on trial.-Maude S-trotted a mile in a half second less than ever before, doing it in

2:08f.

July 31.-The Pope created a batch of Cardinals.

August 1.-Kiel was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged on September 18.

August 4.-A religious service in memory of General Grant was held in Westminster Abbey.

August 6.-The Emperor’s of Germany and Austria met at Gastein.

August 11.-The Spanish Government received information of a plot to assassinate King Alfonso.-A re-union of Federal and Confederate soldiers took place on the field of Gettysburg.

August 14.-The British Parliament was prorogued. The Crimes’ Act in Ireland expired.

August 20.-The occupation of the Caroline Islands by Germans caused much excitement in Spain.

August 22.-China contracted with an English firm to construct 100 miles of railroad, giving Pekin direct communication with the sea.-The new Cunard Steamship Etruria made the fastest ocean voyage yet recorded, six days, five hours, and twenty-one minutes.

August 23.-One thousand eight hundred and nineteen deaths in one day from cholera, were reported from Spain-the highest record.

August 25.-The Emperors of Russia and Austria met at Kremsier.

August 29.-The peasants of South Germany were thrown into consternation by the sudden and inexplicable departure of the rooks, that for centuries had made their abode there.

August 31.-An official announcement was made that of 223,546 persons attacked by cholera in Spain, 82,619 had died from the epidemic.

September 1.-A modified commercial treaty was agreed upon by the United States Minister and the Spanish Government.

September 7.-The new and patriotic Archbishop of Dublin, Dr. Walsh, was installed. His Grace is a very prodigy of learning, and is a young man. The Whigs were in favor of an Archbishop of the McCabe type, but the Parnellites prevailed at Rome and ‘’elected their man.”

September 8.-The deaths from cholera in Spain were reported as being rapidly on the decrease.

September 10.-The highest tide of the year was experienced on the British coast.-The Society of the Army of the Tennessee held a great meeting at Chicago.

September 13.-Small-pox broke out in Montreal, Canada, 48 deaths being reported.

September 14.-Riel was respited.-After four abortive attempts the first International Yacht Match took place off New York, the American yacht Puritan beating the English yacht Genesta.

September 15.-Jumbo, the famous elephant, was killed by a freight train at St. Thomas, Ontario.

September 17.-A wondrous hail storm took place near Granite Falls, Minn., the stones being ten inches in thickness.

September 18.-A revolution took place in Eastern Roumelia. The Governor-General was placed under arrest and allegiance was sworn to Prince Alexander of Bulgaria.

September 20.-A monster Socialistic meeting was held in London, England, and several of the speakers were arrested.

September 22.-Three hundred lives were lost by a cyclone which swept over the Bay of Bengal.

September 23.-Bismarck accepted Spain’s apology for an insult to the German Embassy at Madrid.-A fearful crush opposite the hotel in Stockholm, where Madame Nilsson, the prima donna, was stopping, resulted in nineteen persons being killed and fifty injured.-United States war vessels arrived at New York with silver to the amount of $10,400,000 on board.

September 28.-The deaths reported from small-pox for a week at Montreal numbered 325, and an attempt to enforce compulsory vaccination produced a riot, the rioters making an assault on the Board of Health.

September 29.-The Militia was called out to suppress the mob in Montreal.

September 30.-Great and destructive floods were reported from India and from Switzerland.

October 1.-The daily vaccination at Montreal was reported at 3,000.-The first female law student entered Yale College.-The system of sixpenny (10 cent) telegrams came into operation in Great Britain. The Earl of Shaftesbury died, aged 84. [Anthony Ashley Cooper, K.G.D.C.L.. 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, was born on the 29th of April, 1801. of a family which for three hundred years has claimed kindred with the greatest in England. His mother was a daughter of the Duke of Marlborough. Under his then title of Lord Ashley he was sent to Harrow and then to Oxford. At the age of twenty-five he entered Parliament as member for Woodstock, and afterwards represented Dorchester and Bath. In 1851 his father died and he took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1828 he was connected with the Board of Control, in 1834 one of the Lords of the Admiralty, and an Excise Commissioner from 1841 to 47. He married, in 1830. Lady Emily, eldest daughter of Earl Cowper, who died in 1872. Lord Shaftesbury’s whole term of service in the two chambers was fifty-six years. He leaves four sons and two daughters. His life has been one of vast usefulness, and his name long honored by the most virtuous and intellectual people of the civilized world.]

October 3.-A conference was held in Constantinople on the Roumelian question.-A great demonstration took place in Manchester to celebrate the passing of the Manchester Ship Canal Bill. This canal will connect Manchester with Liverpool.

October 6.-Another riot occurred at Montreal.

October 7.-The Abysinian army, marching to the relief of Kassala, in the Soudan, encountered Osman Digma and defeated him, killing 3,000 of his dervishes.

October 8.-A great fire occurred in the city of London, causing a loss of $15,000^009.-The Patent Office reported that during the fiscal year ended June 30th, 35,688 patents were applied for.

October 9.-Shocks of earthquake startled Virginia.

October 10.-”Hell Gate Rock.” New York Harbor, covering nine acres, was exploded with 285,000 lbs. of dynamite and rack-a-rock. [After the destruction of Hallett’s Reef a few years since, work was commenced on Flood Rock, which was the great remaining obstacle to navigation. The rock was honeycombed with cartridges, and the explosion was entirely satisfactory to Gen. Newton, the engineer. Scientific observations were made as to the effects of the concussion, and as far away as Massachusetts the shock was felt and the exact time recorded. The clearing away of the debris (now being done) will make a channel 26 feet deep and 1200 feet wide.]-Three shocks of earthquake were felt in Virginia.-His Eminence, Cardinal McCloskey, Cardinal Archbishop of New York, died aged 75. [Cardinal John McCloskey was born in Brooklyn on March 20, 1810. At the age of seven he was sent to Mount St. Mary’s College, at Emmetsburg, Md., where he supplemented his classical education by a course of theology at the seminary of that place. He was ordained a priest in 1834. Two years later he went to Rome and spent two years at the convent of St. Andreas della Vallée. While there he became intimate with Cardinal Wiseman, then rector of the English College, and Cardinal Cullen, rector of the Irish College. Upon returning to New York he was appointed assistant pastor at St. Patrick’s Cathedral; in 1838 he was appointed assistant pastor of St. John’s, and in 1841 he was nominated by Archbishop Hughes president of Fordham College, much against the wishes of his parishioners; but he returned in a year to St. John’s, after skilfully commencing the organization of the new college. On the 10th of March, 1844, Father McCloskey was consecrated titular bishop of Atiere and coadjutor to the Bishop of New York. In 1847 the diocese of New York was divided, and on the 21st of May of the same year Bishop McCloskey was translated to the see of Albany, and made its first bishop. Albany at that time contained only three churches. During the years that Bishop McCloskey spent there he accomplished much for the cause of religion, churches were built, and institutions organized. But the Bishop’s greatest achievement was the erection of the imposing Cathedral, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1848 by Archbishop Hughes. In 1851 Bishop McCloskey visited Rome. In 1864, when Archbishop Hughes died, Bishop McCloskey was appointed his successor. His departure from Albany occasioned gloom and sorrow there, where he was much beloved. He did for New York what he had accomplished for Albany. Churches and institutions sprang up like magic under his fostering and beneficent care. To him the Catholics of New York were indebted for the Westchester Protectory, a Foundling Asylum in 68th Street, a Deaf and Dumb Association at Fordham, and Homes for destitute children and aged people. He established various religious communities composed of Dominicans, Franciscans, Capuchins, and the Little Sisters of the Poor. He also devoted himself untiringly to bring to a successful completion Archbishop Hughes’ conception of the present stately Cathedral of St. Patrick on Fifth Avenue. March 15, 1875, was a memorable day not only in Archbishop McCloskey’s career, but also in the history of the Roman Catholic Church in America, for on that day he was appointed a Cardinal by the Pope. Archbishop McCloskey received the news of his elevation to this high dignity with the modesty and humility which had always formed a striking part in his character. The investure took place on April 27, 1875, in Old St. Patrick’s in Mott Street. The scene at this ceremony was marked by a religious pomp and magnificence never before witnessed in this country. A short time afterwards Cardinal McCloskey went to Rome, where he was received with great distinction by the Pope. After the completion of the new Cathedral, a marble residence was erected on the grounds, and there the Cardinal has passed his declining years in seclusion, seldom mixing in social life, except by an occasional summer trip to Newport, R. I. On the 12th of January, 1884, the fiftieth anniversary of his elevation to the priesthood was celebrated ad the Cathedral with impressive ceremonies. From that time till his death his health failed gradually, when his useful life was brought to a close, and he peacefully expired in the presence of many of the sorrowing clergy. He was a man to compel attention even in a multitude, not through any mere physical endowment, but by the quiet gravity of his demeanor, and the ascetic though singularly benign cast of his features. The mold of his face was Irish, and his eyes were blue and piercing. During his long career in the Church he commanded the respect of non-Catholics by his blameless life, and firmly rooted himself in the affection of every Catholic heart. He is succeeded by the Most Rev. Michael Augustine Corrigan, Titular Bishop of Petra, who was appointed his coadjutor a few years since.]

October 12.-Reserves were called out in Greece, and Servia was at a war-fever heat.

October 13.-The body of Cardinal McCloskey lay in state at St. Patrick’s Cathedral, and was visited by thousands.

October 15.-The reported death of Osman Digma was confirmed.

October 21.-An attempt to wreck street cars in St. Louis by dynamite was frustrated by discovery.

October 22.-The British Privy Council refused to reverse the sentence of death passed on Riel by the Canadian Court.-Prince Waldemar of Denmark was married, at the ancient Castle d’Eu. to Marie Amélie d’Orleans.

October 24.-A prairie-fire in Texas swept over 500,000 acres.

October 27.-A terrific storm devastated Labrador.

October 28.-The Great Eastern Steamship, that laid the first Atlantic cable, was sold for $130.000.

October 29.-An attempt was made by one Corsi to assassinate De Freycinet, French Minister of Foreign Affairs, while riding in his carriage in the streets of Paris.-General McClellan (Little Mac) died aged 58. [George B. McClellan was born at Philadelphia in December 1826. In his 16th year he was sent to the United States Military Academy at West Point, where he graduated with high honors in 1846, and joined the army as second lieutenant of engineers, to take an active part in the Mexican war, where he distinguished himself. In 1861 he was made commander-in-chief and reorganized the Army of the Potomac. In 1864 he was the Democratic candidate for President, but was defeated by Abraham Lincoln. In 1877 he was elected Governor of New Jersey. He has published several military papers.]

October 30.-Senator Stanford set aside $3,000,000 to endow an university at Palo Alto, Cal.

October 31.-Ferdinand Ward, the ” Napoleon of Finance,” was sentenced to hard labor in the Penitentiary for ten years, and taken to Sing Sing prison.

November 2.-The British forces marched against Burmah.- The remains of General McClellan were interred at Trenton, N. J.

November 3.-The monument erected at Tappan-on-Hudson to Major André by Cyrus W. Field was blown to pieces by dynamite.

November 4.-A determined crusade against the Chinese in Washington Territory and elsewhere on the Pacific coast was inaugurated.

November 7.-President Grévy refused to accept the resignation of the French Cabinet.

November 9.-The International Inventions Exhibition, London, was closed, the total number of visitors who attended was 3,760,581.

November 10.-War with Burmah was formally declared by Great Britain.-The New Orleans Exposition was re-opened.

November 11.-The Balkan Conference agreed that the basis of its deliberations should be a restoration of affairs that existed before the Roumelian Revolution.

November 13.-A great fire swept over Galveston, Texas, destroying fifty blocks, and causing damage to the extent of $3,000.000. -The business failures in the United States during- the year ending October amounted to 9.627.

November 14.-The Ruler of Servia at the head of his troops marched into Bulgaria.

November 16.-Louis Riel, the Half-breed leader, was hanged for high treason at Regina, Northwest Territory.

November 17.-A battle of eighteen hours’ duration was fought between the Servians and Bulgarians near Slineratz.-The British Parliament was dissolved.

November 20.-The town of Helena, Ark., was visited by a deluge of grasshoppers.

November 21.-A tornado swept over the Philippine Islands, causing immense destruction of life and property.

November 23.-The most exciting Parliamentary elections of modern times commenced in Great Britain.

November 24.-The Chamber of Deputies, France, recommended the evacuation of Tonquin and Madagascar.

November 25.-Alfonso XII., King of Spain, died aged 28. [Alfonso XII. was born Nov. 28, 1857. On Dec. 29, 1874, General Martinez Campos proclaimed him King of Spain in Valencia, and a few days later Alfonso, who had gone over to Paris in order to spend the Jour de I’An with his mother, left France for Spain, arriving at Madrid Jan. 14, 1875. He was most enthusiastically received. On Feb. 16, 1876, he departed from Madrid to take command of the troops operating against the Carlists, and on the 20th of the following month he returned in triumph to the capital at the head of 25,000 men, having subdued the Carlist insurrection. In 1878 he married his cousin, the Princess Mercedes, who died June 26th of the same year. King Alfonso married secondly, in 1879, Maria Christina, who bore him two daughters. His life was attempted on Dec. 30, 1879.]-Thomas A. Hendricks, Vice-President of the United Suites, died aged 66. [Thomas Andrews Hendricks, born in Ohio, Sept. 7, 1819; removed, when a child, with his father, to Shelby Co., Ind.; graduated from South Hanover College in 1841; and was admitted to the bar in 1843. He engaged actively in politics, and soon became one of the leaders of the Democratic Party in Indiana. He was a member of Congress, 1851-55; U- S. Senator, 1863-69; and in 1872 was elected governor of Indiana. In 1876 he was the Democratic candidate for Vice-President, with Samuel J. Tilden for President, but was defeated. In 1884 lie was again nominated for the same position, with Grover Cleveland for President, and was elected. Mr. Hendricks has for years been recognized as one of the ablest and most influential men of his party.]

November 26.-The Servians sent a flag of truce to the Bulgarians, which the latter refused to accept unless their country was evacuated.

November 27.-The Bulgarians were repulsed by the Servians at the battle of Widdin. -Mr. Gladstone was returned as member for Midlothian, Scotland.

November 28.-Mr. Jay Gould announced his intention of retiring from business as a speculator.

December 1.-The British troops occupied Mandalay, the capital of Burmah.-A battle was fought at Lima, Peru, the war continuing.-A convention of Knights of Labor was held at San Francisco to arrange a systematic anti-Chinese agitation.-Vice-President Hendricks was interred.

December 3.-King Thebaw of Burmah offered to abdicate if his life was spared.

December 4.-The British defeated a force of 4,000 Arabs in the Soudan.

December 7.-Hard fighting between the Servians and Bulgarians was reported.-Senator John Sherman was elected president pro tem. of the Senate.

December 8.-The Queen Regent of Spain announced her intention of pardoning all political offenders.-William H. Vanderbilt dropped dead, aged 64. [The great millionaire William H. Vanderbilt was born at New Brunswick, N. J., May 8,1821, the Commodore, his father, being at that time engaged in a steamboat enterprise which required his residence in New Jersey. The young Vanderbilt spent his early years, a roystering gamin, playing about the Vanderbilt homestead on Staten Island. He got such schooling as the Island afforded, and at twelve years was placed in the Columbia College Grammar School, under Dr. Anthon, and for six years got a good academic training there. He was then placed by his father as a clerk in the banking house of Drew, Robinson & Co., of Wall street, then one of the largest (inns operating in the market. Two years of clerking broke down his health, and to fend off the chronic dyspepsia which threatened, the physicians ordered an out-door life. The father purchased a seventy-five acre farm on Staten Island and set his son, just of age, upon it. He had already married a Miss Kissam, daughter of a New York clergyman, and the young couple were living very comfortably on a $16 weekly salary. The farm-life was hard-the farm practically a stony desert. He soon felt the need of capital. He knew he could use it to advantage, but he did not dare to ask for a loan from the already abundant store of his father. A friend asked the favor of a $5,000 loan on behalf of the young man, only to meet a flat refusal from the Commodore. This led to a mortgage of $6,000 being placed on the farm. William made of farming a success. His farm grew to one of 350 acres, and he found profit and pleasure in the raising of fine stock, and got that close knowledge of horseflesh which was one of the passions of his life. The Staten Island Railroad was suggested, and Wm. H. Vanderbilt became, with his uncle Jacob, largely instrumental in starting this venture, and in 1856 the road was built, skirting the eastern shore from Vanderbilt’s Landing. It was a great public convenience, and when it went into bankruptcy Mr. Vanderbilt became receiver. In two years he had settled all the debts, had put the road on a paying basis and established a regular ferry to New York. He had become fully identified with his father’s growing enterprises, and in every way began to prepare himself to succeed the Commodore. He became in 1865 Vice-President of the New York and Hudson River road, and upon the consolidation with the Central in the following year he was made Vice-President of the united company. He had already been made Vice-President of the Harlem road, and from that time on father and son worked together to build up the greatest railroad property in America. With the close of the will contest Wm. H. Vanderbilt found himself in undisputed possession of the great railroad properties which had been built up by his father, and he pushed them with vigor in every direction. The railroad system which came under his control, as it had been in fact before the Commodore’s death, included not only the New York Central and the Harlem, but the Lake Shore and” Michigan Central, and they became a virtual entity as the ‘’Vanderbilt system.” Subsequently he went into telegraph stock and had a vast interest in the Western Union Company, while in the Union Pacific his holdings were very large. In his enterprises he used an army of men as agents and executive officers, but his advisory board consisted of James H. Rutter, E. D. Worcester and Chauncey M. Depew, with his son Cornelius in later years. While he was a hard worker he was also a generous liver and his former home at Fortieth street was one of the most luxurious on Fifth Avenue. His summers were spent at the old Pavilion Hotel at Sharon Springs and at the United States Hotel at Saratoga. He was accustomed in later years to take summer flits to Europe, and his last run over was a round trip on one of the White Star steamers, running up from Queenstown to Killarney while the steamer was running to Liverpool, and embarking again on its return to Queenstown. He often said that he found the ocean steamers good enough yachts for him when urged to allow his love for out-door life to lead him into yachting. In his family relations Mr. Vanderbilt has been very happy. He has had nine children, of whom eight survive him, four sons-Wm. K., Cornelius, Frederick and George-and four daughters, all of them married.]

December 10.-The King of Burmah was sent to Madras.

December 11.-It was announced that the British Government would send a new expedition to the Soudan.-France denied the report of an alliance with Burmah.

December 12.-The bi-centennial of printing in America’s Middle Colonies was celebrated at Philadelphia. A plot organized for the assassination of some of San Francisco’s most prominent citizens was exposed.

December 17.-Mr. Gladstone declared himself favorable to a ” certain measure ” of Home Rule.

December 23.-Greece complained that the great powers make her no reparation for injuries sustained.-Capitalists from Berlin decided to send delegates to China with a view to negotiating with the Government in the matter of establishing a railway system throughout the empire.

December 24.-The purchase of 800,000 barrels of oil in Oil City by a single speculator, nearly paralyzed the oil trade.

December 27.-The ” Lady Stitching Union ” of Lynn, Mass., composed of 3,000 women, demanded an increase of wages, and their demands were complied with.

December 28.-Consequent upon a fierce contest M. Grévy was re-elected President of the French Republic.

December 30.-The British troops after a desperate fight defeated the Arab troops in the Soudan. Monsieur Pasteur’s method of treating hydrophobia was taken up by the incorporation of the American Institute of Hydrophobia.

December 31.-The year 1885 died uneventfully, and went to its rest as quietly as the sun sets.

APPENDIX.

A SYNOPSIS OP THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS ALL OVER THE WORLD IN 1885.

April 1.-Revolutionists burned Aspinwall, the principal city of Panama, leaving thousands of people homeless and shelterless.- Bismarck celebrated his seventieth birthday.-Battleford, Canada,, was pillaged and burned by the half-breed insurgents.-General Grant was reported as dying.

April 3.-General Graham with the British troops occupied Tamai.-The United States Government despatched a force of 800 marines and war vessels to the Isthmus of Panama to protect the property of Americans, and open up communication across the Isthmus. Gold discoveries in North Carolina were reported.

April 5.-A new French Cabinet was formed.-Preparations for war with Russia progressed in England, as Russia’s answer to England’s demand was considered as ” slimily evasive.”

April 6.-Peace was concluded between France and China.

April 7.-The new French Ministry defined its policy to the Chamber of Deputies, and the latter voted $30,000,000 for operations in Tonquin. The Prince and Princess of Wales with their eldest son started for Ireland.

April 8.-The ” Castle hacks ” received the Prince and Princess of Wales with all honor, the citizens holding aloof. An official proclamation against the Mahdi was issued at Constantinople.

April 9.-The most frantic excitement was caused in England by the news of a battle fought between the Russian troops and Afghans near Penjdeh on the Afghan frontier. War with Russia was considered inevitable, and the Government naval and dock-yards were worked at the highest pressure.-The report that Barrios was killed in an engagement in Central America was confirmed.

April 10.-Fourteen whites were killed by Indians at Frog Lake, Winnipeg.

April 11.-England, on her mettle, demanded that Russia disavow the act of her commander on the Afghan frontier and recall him. The war feeling was at its height.-General Grant was reported as much worse.

April 13.-Turkey announced her disinclination to enter into an alliance with either England or Russia.-At the Mallow Junction, Ireland, a riot occurred upon the arrival of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the people desiring ” none of them,” and clamoring for “Justice to Ireland ” and singing ” God save Ireland.”-The United States Supreme Court decided that a wife’s estate is not liable for the debts contracted by her husband, while pretending to act as trustee for her, unless she intended her estate to be so bound.

April 14.-Peace was proclaimed in Central America.

April 15.-A riot occurred in Cork on the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales, the rioters being fired on by the police. Rotten eggs and decomposed cabbages were freely flung at the Royal party, who were hooted and groaned as they passed through the city.

April 18.-Primrose day was celebrated in England, so-called as being the anniversary of Lord Beaconsfield’s death, the primrose being his favorite flower.

April 20.-Six hundred colored people left South Carolina for Arkansas.

April 21.-Sir Peter Lumsden’s despatch in reply to the British Government’s inquiry as to the correctness of the Russian accounts of the Penjdeh affair was published, and it contradicted in many particulars the Russian General Komaroff’s despatch. The British Government asked Parliament for a ” credit” of $55,000,-000 for the Army and Navy.-Mr. Keiley, Minister to Italy, resigned. An attempt was made to blow up the University of Chicago.

April 22.-The Reserves came out strong in England, the call to arms being enthusiastically responded to.-A terrific volcanic eruption took place on the Island of Java.-The United States troops in Panama were fired upon and a proclamation directed against them. Ice 20 inches in thickness and snow drifts 10 feet high were reported in the State of New York.

April 23.-A dynamite explosion in the Admiralty Office, London, again scared the Cockneys, and the papers ” went ” for the United States. In Belfast the Orange section, descendants of Cromwell’s Ironsides, received the Prince and Princess of Wales with the most frantic loyalty. At Stratford-on-Avon the 321st birthday of Shakespeare was jubilantly celebrated, the crowd of visitors being numerous. The Austrian Government seized upon five Vienna papers for printing objectionable political matter.-Destructive forest fires ravaged Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

April 24.-United States troops took possession of Panama, and arrested Aizpuru, commander of the rebels.

April 25.-A battle was fought between the Canadian troops and Kiel’s half-breeds.-Emma, Queen Do wager of Hawaii, widow of King Kamehameha, died.

April 27.-The British House of Commons, after a powerful address from the G. O- M., without a division, voted $55,000.000 for the war with Russia.

April 28.-A fleet of mackerel schooners arrived at New York -with 12,000,000 fish caught off the Virginia Capes within twenty-our hours.

April 29.-The rebels at Panama surrendered.-The Police Commissioners of Cincinnatti decided to close the theatres on Sundays. [”he new Chicago Board of Trade opened its palatial building, which cost $2,000,000.

April 30.-Mr. Keiley, whose appointment as Minister to Italy vas objected to on account of his personal opinion in regard to the Catholicity and morality of the late king, Victor Emanuel, was appointed Minister to Austria.

May 1.-Brinley Richards, the musical composer, died aged 67.

May 2.-The Exposition at Antwerp was opened with considerable flourish of trumpets.-A threatened “strike ” riot in Joliet, II.. was nipped in the bud by the interposition of the soldiery. The railway war in cut rates enabled a traveler to proceed from New York to the Pacific for $43.00.

May 4.-The World’s Exhibition of Inventions, or the ” Inventories,” was opened in London.-General Grant resumed work on his book. The Patent-office reported that for the month of April 3,159 applications for patents were sent in.

May 5.-The Mexicans celebrated the defeat of the French, in 1862, with freat furore, the Capital being a scene of the brightest festivity.-A treaty was concluded by the United States Government, and the Columbian Government at Bogotá, providing a joint protectorate over the Isthmus.

May 6.-The Columbian Government hanged two rebels who were prominent in the insurrection.-Cable cars were introduced into Philadelphia streets.

May 7.-James Russell Lowell unveiled a bust of Coleridge in Westminster Abbey, and delivered an address.

May 9.-Another battle was fought between the Canadian troops and the half-breeds, in which the latter were routed by General Middleton.

May 13.-A riot occurred in Trafalgar Square, London, between the police and the mob which had gathered to protest against the proposed increase of tax on spirits and beer.

May 14.-The House of Commons voted the Princess Beatrice, the youngest and only unmarried daughter of Queen Victoria, an annuity of $30,000 on the occasion of her marriage with a pauper German princeling.

May 15.-Queen Victoria was presented with the first complete copy of the “Revised Bible.”-Louis Riel, the half-breed instigator of the Canadian Rebellion, was captured.

May 16.-The Revised Edition of the Bible was issued to the newspapers.

19.-The rebels in Columbia attacked the city of Carthagena, but were repulsed with heavy loss.-Mr. Lowell took official leave of the Queen, and Mr. Phelps “kissed hands” as the new American Minister.

May 21.-The Presbyterian General Council opened in Cincinnatti.

May 22.-Victor Hugo, French author, poet and dramatist, lied aged 83. [He was the youngest of three sons of -General Hugo, who served with distinction through Napoleon’s campaigns .n Italy and Spain. Madame Hugo and her children followed the General into both countries. Thus their early years were spent amid strange sights and scenes, following the fortunes of war. The first volume of Victor Hugo’s ” Odes and Ballads ” appeared 111 1822, and his tales, “Hans of Iceland” and ” Bug-Jargal,” were written about this time. In 1826 he published a second volume of “Odes and Ballads.” which exhibited a change in his political and literary opinions, and in 1827 he composed his drama. ” Cromwell.” In 1829 he published his “Last Days of a Condemned Criminal.” Shortly after the Revolution of July 1830, his “Marion de Lorme,” which had been suppressed by the censorship under the Restoration, was brought out with success. ” Le Roi s’amuse ” was performed at the Theatre Francais in January, 1832. After the coup d’etat of 1851, Victor Hugo refused the amnesty offered by Napoleon HI., rejected with scorn the triumph of Imperialism, and went into a voluntary exile for nineteen years afterward at Guernsey. His prose works during this period included ” Les Miserables,” “Les Travailleurs de laMer,” ” L’Homrne qui Rit,” and ” Quatre-vingt Treize”; his poems, “Napoleon le petit,” “Les Chatiments,” “La Legende des Siecles.” ” Chansons des Rues et des Bois,” and ” Les Contemplations.” On the fall of the Empire he hastened back to his native country, and was returned to the National Assembty at Bordeaux. He then sought refuge in the seclusion of the little town of Vianden, in Luxemburg, where he composed “L’Annee Terrible.” Returning to Paris in Jul3^r, 1871, he pleaded earnestly for the lives of Rossel, Ferre, and the other Communists. M. Victor Hugo has given an account of this period of his career in “Actes et Paroles, 1870-71-72,” published in 1872. Collections of his lyrics, which were published from time to time, bore the titles: “Les Rayons et les Ombres,” “Les Voix Interieures.” “Les Feuilles d’Atttomne,” “Chants du Crepnscule,” etc. Victor Hugo’s literary works brought him a moderate fortune, and his latter years were spent in a pleasant house on the outskirts of Paris, in an avenue named in his honor.]

May 27.-The Supreme Court of Mexico decided that foreigners may hold property in the Republic.-The Mikado of Japan conferred honorary titles on four American citizens, for services rendered as teachers in the University of Tokio.-A Philadelphia woman was convicted of being a “common scold,” and sentenced to four months’ imprisonment.

May 28.-The President and Cabinet refused to encourage the re-opening of the New Orleans Exhibition in the fall.

May 30.-The Apache Indians committed atrocities in Arizona. Great excitement was caused by the discovery of a gold mine in Josephine County, Oregon.

June 1.-The funeral of Victor Hugo took place in Paris. He was interred in the Pantheon. The cortege and ceremonial was one of the most imposing ever witnessed in “glittering Lutetia.”

June 2.-A terrible earthquake occurred in Cashmere, India.- The mayor of Chicago issued a proclamation against gamblers and gambling in that city, which caused a sensation.

June 4.-The British House of Commons was greatly exercised over the question of diplomatic relations with the Vatican, and the Government announced that it was not their intention to establish same in a regular way.-A motion in the French Chambers impeaching M. Ferry was defeated.-A cyclone in Aden. Arabia, committed fearful havoc.-In Arizona and New Mexico the hostile Indians were on the war path.

June 5.-Sir Julius Benedict. Kt., musical composer, died, aged 81.-Ferdinand Ward, ” the Napoleon of finance,” was indicted for fraud.

June 6.-Cashmere was again desolated by an earthquake.

June 7.-There was a great demonstration in Hyde Park, London, to protest against an increase in the beer and spirit duties.

June 8.-Mr. Gladstone was defeated in the House of Commons on the proposition to increase the tax on wine and spirits. The excitement in England was at fever heat.-The treaty of peace between France and China was signed.-The newspapers published the first extracts from General Grant’s memoirs.

June 9.-The Gladstone Ministry resolved upon resignation, to the utter dismay of the Liberals, and the intense satisfaction of the Conservatives and Parnellites.

June 10.-A fire at Aux Cayes, Hayti, destroyed $2,000,000 worth of property, and rendered over one thousand families homeless.-The supporters of Prince Napoleon issued an election Manifesto, declaring war against “Republican Anarchy.”

June 11–Queen Victoria summoned the Marquis of Salisbury to Balmoral with a view to commanding him to take office and form a Ministry.

June 12.-The Marquis of Salisbury consented to form a Ministry; this after considerable hesitation. The town of Grodno, Russia, was destroyed by fire.

June 15.-The Shah of Persia started a school and a newspaper. -Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, “The Red Prince,” died aged 57. [Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, better known as ” The Red Prince,” was the son of Prince Frederick Charles, who was a brother of the present Emperor of Germany. He was born March 20, 1828. He married, November 29.1854, the Princess Marie, daughter of Leopold Frederick, Duke of Anhalt. His children: 1. Princess Marie, born September 14, 1855, married, August 24, 1878, Prince Henry of the Netherlands. 2. Princess Elizabeth, born February 8, 1857, married, February 18. 1878, the Hereditary Duke of Oldenburg. 3. Princess Louise, born July 25, 1860, married, March 13, 1879, the Duke of Connaught; and 4. Prince Joachim, born May 14, 1865.]

June 16-Cholera appeared in Spain. Its malignity spreading terror over the Peninsula.-Another shock of earthquake was experienced at Cashmere, and 2.000 people were reported as killed.

June 17.-The New British Cabinet was announced, and Lord Randolph Churchill being given a portfolio, created at once satisfaction and surprise.-The Bartholdi Statue of ” Liberty Enlightening the World ” arrived at New York.

June 18.-A Cabinet crisis in Italy led to the resignation of the Ministry.-A shock of earthquake was severely felt at York, England.-The increase of cholera in Spain was most serious.

June 19.-The Statue of ” Liberty Enlightening the World ” was formally received in New York, [It is estimated that, of the $390,000 that will have been expended before the statue is finally placed in position, the pedestal alone will have cost $250,000, the interior bracings and structure $25,000, and the placing it in position, $25,000. This will make total cost of statue, pedestal and erection about $650,000, or over half a million. The pedestal is a truncated cone, with galleries on each side supported by Ionic columns. The top of the torch will then be 305 feet 11 inches above low water, 21 feet higher than Trinity Church spire, and 23 feet higher than the towers of the Brooklyn Bridge. Some approximate idea of the size of the statue may be gained when it is stated that the forefinger is nearly 7 feet long, and is over 4 feet in circumference at the second joint. The nail measures 9 by 6 inches, the head is 16 feet high, and the eye is nearly 2 feet wide. Three feet and over is the length of the nose; forty persons can find room inside the head, and twelve in the torch held by the hand.]

June 20.-A shock of earthquake was felt in Switzerland.-The Spanish Ministry tendered their resignation in consequence of the King’s determination to visit the cholera-stricken districts.

June 23.-The Salisbury Ministry formally entered office, the Marquis having received the seals from the Queen.

June 24.-The Russian Government forbade newspapers from making any reference to its action in Afghan affairs.-The decree of the Mexican Government regarding payment of duties and railway subsidies caused a financial crisis.-The second case of whipping for wife-beating took place in Maryland.

June 25–The ravage of disease among the French soldiers at Tonquin was reported as appalling.-A severe shock of earthquake was felt in Inverness-shire, Scotland.

June 26.-The financial embarrassment of the Mexican Government was officially reported.

June 27.-The Rev. Mr. Spurgeon published a pamphlet denouncing immorality in English high life.-The death-rate from cholera in Spain was enormously increased.-Three hundred natives of the Republic of Nicaragua fell in battle.

June 30.-The Nationalist Parliament party issued an address advising Irish electors to vote for Conservatives for Parliament with a view to the promotion of Irish interests.

APPENDIX.

A SYNOPSIS OP THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS ALL OVER THE WORLD IN 1885.

January 1.—The New Year opened with the crash and unendurable horror of earthquake in Spain.—In “dusky Egypt” the “lone sentinel,” General Gordon, was reported as holding his own against the Mahdi and desperate odds.

January 2.—An explosion of dynamite scared cockney London. —France despatched fresh re-enforcements to the seat of war in China with considerable pomp and circumstance.

January 3.—Mr. Gladstone was reported very ill.—Sunny Spain experienced another shock of earthquake.—In Russia the old grudge against the Hebrews broke out, and in many of the cities the ” chosen people” were dispersed by the military for demanding the release of their co-religionists.—The promoters of the Exhibition of New Orleans, unable to make ” the thing pay,” solicited an additional appropriation, the expenses being $250,000 in excess of what the managers expected.

January 5.—The G. O.M. was bulletined as better.—The House of Representatives refused to abolish the taxes on tobacco and distilled spirits.

January 6.—The earthquake in Spain was felt still more severely. Thousands of people were rendered homeless. Large subscriptions in aid of the sufferers were collected. — President-elect Cleveland resigned the Governorship of New York.

January 7.—Spain was still throbbing with earthquake, the panic in the provinces on the increase.—General Grant distinctly and absolutely declined the financial aid offered by his friends.

January 8.—In Germany the Reichstag re-assembled and Bismarck with considerable spirit defended his policy.—It was reported that 1865 manufacturing and mining enterprises were established in the South in the year 1884, with an aggregate capital of $100,000,000. A mass meeting was held in New Orleans in aid of the Exhibition.

January 9.—A telegram from “England’s only General.” Wolseley, announced that he would reach Khartoum on the 24th of January.—In the Reichstag, Bismarck met with violent and stormy opposition.

January 10.—A hurricane of dense destruction passed over the west and south of England, bearing havoc and disaster.—The King of Spain with his Cabinet started to visit the scenes of the earthquake—an act that rendered him exceedingly popular.—General and Mrs. Grant wrote to Mr. William H. Vanderbilt, declining to allow him to purchase and present them with the General’s ” war relics.”

January 12.—The wreckage on the British coast consequent upon violent storms was immense.

January 13.—Rome was threatened with serious damage by an overflow of the Yellow Tiber.

January 14.—The water of the Tiber receded.—The Bill to place General Grant on the retired list of the army passed the Senate: yeas 49; nays 9.

January 16.—The Annual Report of the Department of Agriculture showed the production of corn during 1884 as 1,895,000.000 bushels, wheat 513,000,000 bushels, and oats 583,000,000 bushels.

January 18.—The House of Representatives refused to consider the bill to place General Grant on the retired list of the army.

January 20.—John Bright published a remarkable letter discussing ^;‘ the situation ” in Great Britain.

January 21 —A desperate battle was reported to have been fought on the 16th between the troops of the Mahdi and the British under General Stewart, near Metemneh, the former being defeated.—A large number of people were overwhelmed and destroyed in Italy by snow avalanches.—General Sheridan issued orders to the U. S. troops to remove the “Oklahoma settlers” from the Indian territory.

January 22.—The Governor of Texas reported extensive depredations by Mexicans on the frontier.

January 23.—The ” Liberty Bell ” started from Philadelphia on its journey to New Orleans.

January 24.—London was flung into frenzied excitement by three dynamite explosions occurring simultaneously in the Crypt, Westminster Hall, the Stranger’s Gallery of the House of Commons, and in the Tower. [The damage done to Westminster Hall was great, showing that a large quantity of explosive matter had been placed inside the great ornamental gates leading to the crypt. The explosion in the House of Commons was even more destructive. The western extremity of the building was completely wrecked. The lobby and post-office were demolished, the force of the attack being so great that a man three hundred yards from the scene was knocked down. In the interior of the House of Commons several seats, including that of Mr. Gladstone, were overturned and broken. The explosion in the Tower of London was on the second floor of the White Tower. Three floors were entirely wrecked, and the explosion damaged many hundred stands of arms that were in the part of the building employed as an arsenal.]

January 26.—Edmund Yates, novelist, and proprietor of The World, was sent to prison for libel against “a lady of quality ” in London society.—News was received from General Stewart and his command in the Soudan announcing desperate battles on the 16th and 19th.—A resolution offered by Mr. Bayard deprecating the dynamite outrages in England passed the Senate.—The Oklahoma invaders surrendered.—The Senate refused to ratify the Nicaragua treaty: yeas 32; nays 23.

January 30.—Considerable excitement was caused in England and France by the report that the commander of the Mahdi’s troops was an ex-Communist named Pain, who escaped from the penal settlement at New Caledonia.

February 1.—Lord O’Hagan, ex-Lord Chancellor of Ireland— the first Roman Catholic chancellor since the Reformation—died, aged 72. He was one of the most eloquent men of the century.— The military rolls in the several states showed an aggregation of 6,580,503 men.

February 2.—A desperate engagement took place between the British troops and the Arabs.—The President informed the House of Representatives of the offer of Mrs. Grant to give the government, in trust, all the various mementoes of General Grant’s Career.

February 4.—The fall of Khartoum was announced, and the tumor that Gordon was killed or a prisoner. The wildest excitement prevailed in England. The English cabinet met and ordered lie most vigorous measures to rescue Gordon, if alive; if dead, to punish the Arabs, and re-establish British prestige in the Soudan. —Russia and England advanced a step in the negotiations relative to the advance of the former on Afghanistan.—Telephonic communication between New York and Chicago was successfully established.

February 7.—Popular feeling against the English government for its Egyptian policy became intensified.—The Jews in Tangiers reported brutal outrages inflicted upon them by the Moors.

February 9.—England sent re-enforcements to Egypt.—The French Commander in Tonquin reported the destruction of five forts.

February. 11.—The reports of General Gordon’s death were confirmed. [Charles George Gordon (” Chinese Gordon “) was born in 1883, left the Royal Engineers as first-lieutenant in 1854, served lithe Crimean war, and was wounded at Sebastopol. He was engaged in settling the Russian and Turkish frontiers in Asia; and he served in the expedition against Pekin. Taking service under the emperor of China, he was appointed to the command of the ‘Ever Victorious Army,” and succeeded in suppressing the Tai-Ping rebellion. By his energy, and the terror of his name, he restored order to various towns and districts; and relieved some of the richest and most fertile parts of China from the hands of brigands. He was a man of great courage, and his utter contempt of danger made him, in the eyes of the heathen, a being from whom they fled in terror, or owned his sway with reverential awe.]—Turkish newspapers were officially ordered not to publish any news from the Soudan.—The Bill conferring suffrage of women passed one branch of the Legislature by a vote of 29 to 18.—His Eminence, Cardinal McCabe, who succeeded Cardinal Paul Cullen, died after a severe and prolonged illness. He was ripe scholar, and a severe churchman. In politics, if he professed any, he was a Whig, and was always on intimate terms with Dublin Castle.

February 12.—The French advance on Langson, Tonquin, reported three days’ hard fighting.

February 13.—The English Government was charged with suppressing General Gordon’s diary.—The literary world was exercised over the sale of some unpublished letters of Lord and Lady Byron.

February 14.—Egypt, on account of ” no funds,” was compelled to release her military prisoners.—A snow-slide buried the greater part of the town of Alta in Utah.

February 16.—A fight occurred between French and German socialists in the streets of Paris at a funeral, the latter having refused to lower the German flag.—France concluded a treaty with Burmah.—A large crowd of unemployed working-men marched through London, causing considerable excitement.—Maj.-Gen. Sir Herbert Stewart was killed in action in the Soudan, aged 41.—The Mardi-Gras festivities at New Orleans were witnessed by over 80,000 People.—The Hocking Valley strike of eight months’ duration ended.—The first of the bills proposing the retirement of General Grant failed to pass the House of Representatives.

February 17.—The study of Latin and Greek was declared not essential to admission to Harvard. The severest frost known for several years visited the States, bays and rivers heretofore free of ice being frozen over.

February 19.—The British troops in the Soudan commenced their retreat. Parliament met, and Mr. Gladstone vigorously defended nil justified the policy of his administration in Egypt. The Roman Catholic Bishop of Shrewsby in a pastoral letter denounced dynamiters.

February 22.—The great obelisk, in honor of George Washington, was dedicated. [The cost of the completed monument will aggregate $1,500,000. The shaft is 555 feet high, and the entire height, including the foundations, 592 feet. The base of the obelisk is 55 feet 1 1/2 inches square. At 500 feet above the ground, it has four sides, each of which is 35 feet wide. Its area at this point is that of a comfortable six-room house, each room of which might be 12×16. It would take more than 125 yards of carpet to cover its floor. This square forms the base of the pyramidal top, which runs from it 55 feet until it terminates in its metallic point. This point is constructed of the largest piece of aluminum ever made. It is a pyramid 9 inches high, and weighs exactly one hundred ounces, being one-third as light as it would be if it were made of copper. Aluminum does not corrode, and it makes one of the best conductors of lightning. The monument is only veneered with marble, but as it is over two feet thick, it is substantial. It is 30 feet higher than any other work of man. The stones of which the monument is constructed are great blocks, in some cases 9 feet long, 2 feet thick, and 3 and more feet wide. There are more than 18,000 of them. They are of white marble, and weigh several tons each. One hundred and eighty-one ” memorial stones” have from first to last been contributed for use in the monument, but only 83 were set in that portion of the shaft that was built prior to 1856. Many of the others were entirely unworthy of a place, and were rejected by the commission. Among those sent was one from the Pope, several from foreign Governments, and one from each of the States and Territories. The ceremonies attending the dedication of the monument were of the most imposing character. The procession embraced over 6,000 men, and made an unusually fine display.]

February 23.—Switzerland rejected a naturalization treaty with the United States.

February 24.—The Prince and Princess of Wales decided to visit Ireland, to the horror of the Cockney Press.—The Senate passed the Bill authorizing the President to negotiate for the purchase of the Indian rights in the Oklahoma lands.

February 25.—Switzerland decided to expel from her territory over 1,000 anarchists who sought shelter therein.—Mr. Cleveland, President-elect, urged the Democratic members of Congress to vote in favor of the suspension of silver coinage. The seal fisheries of Alaska were reported to yield to the United States Government $300,000 annually.

February 26.—The Congo Conference, under the presidency of Bismarck, held its first sitting.—The English Army estimates for the year were submitted at $89.000,000.—In the House of Representatives the clause in the Sundry Civil Appropriation Bill giving the President discretionary power in the matter of the suspension of silver coinage, was rejected.

February 27.—The motion to censure the English Government-policy in regard to Egypt was defeated in the House of Commons by the narrow majority of 14; the Parnellites voting in favor of censure.—The Secretary for War officially declared in the House of Commons that, the Government would not abandon the Soudan till Khartoum be taken, and the Mahdi crushed.—The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union of Trenton, N. J., dedicated its new building, costing $32.000. The House of Representatives appropriated $300,000 for the New Orleans Exposition.

March 2.—The 700th Anniversary of the Convention of the Temple Church was celebrated in London.—The Pope reached his seventy-fifth year.—Severe shocks of earthquake terrified Spain.

March 3.—Tumultuous meetings of Anarchists were held in Paris.—The New South Wales contingent left Sydney for the Soudan; the first occasion of Australian troops sharing in the defence of the British Empire.—President Arthur received, according to usage, the resignations of the members of his Cabinet. Washington was literally crammed with visitors to the inaugural ceremonies.

March 4.—Grover Cleveland, ex-Governor of New York, was inaugurated President of the United States, the inaugural address being delivered and oath administered in front of the Capitol. General Grant publicly expressed his gratification at the passage of the Bill by Congress, placing him on the retired list.

March 5.—A contractor nailed up the Parliament buildings in Quebec, and refused to allow the Legislators admittance till his unpaid claim was discharged.—President Cleveland nominated his cabinet, and held his first public reception.

March 7-—Queen Victoria invested $5,000,000 in real estate, in London.—The President’s Cabinet took the oath of office.

March 9.—War was declared between Guatemala and Nicaragua, on account of an attempt of the president of the former to form an union of all Central American States.

March 11.—Immense excitement was caused in England over the prospects of a war with Russia, owing to the evasion of the latter of Britain’s ultimatum, and the departure of Muscovite troops for Afghanistan.—Mr. Parnell urged Ireland to observe a respectful neutrality during the approaching visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales.—The British government granted $100,000 to the family of General Gordon.—The introduction of machinery for the manufacture of cigars led to serious riots in Madrid, Spain.

March 12.-—Mexico declared against Barrios’ proposed forced consolidation of the Central American States, and President Diaz threatened to send troops to the frontier.—The Swiss government commenced the arrest of Socialists who refused to leave Swiss territory.—Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson, Bt., well known in connection with the first Atlantic Cable, died aged 74.

March 13.—Mr. Gladstone announced in the House of Commons, that an agreement had been made between Russia and England as to peace.

March 14.—The illness of General Grant became the subject of extensive description in the public papers.

March 15.—Telephone tickets at half a franc were issued in Paris.

March 16.—The commander of the French in China demanded 10,000 men as reinforcement.—Coal was discovered in Mexico.— The largest solar eclipse since 1869 took place.

March 18.—The British government guaranteed a loan of $45,000,000 to pay off the Egyptian debt.—The ambassador from France, in China, was instructed to negotiate with China for peace.

March 19.—Woman suffrage legislation was defeated in both the New York and Connecticut Legislatures.

March 20.—The British forces encountered severe defeat near Suakim. Cork decided to ignore the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales.

March 21.—The Humane Society of Pittsburg, 0., sued the Pennsylvania Railroad for cruelty to animals in transportation.

March 22.—The Arabs were badly beaten in a battle near Suakim. Reconnoitring at Suakim l>y means of a balloon took place; the first ascent made in active service in the British Army.

March 23.—A number of Spanish army officers were arrested, charged with organizing a conspiracy to overthrow the monarch jr.— A revolt of half-breeds, with Riel at their head, was reported from the Northwest Territory, Canada. [Louis Riel, a half-breed educated in Lower Canada, became a public character in 1869, when Manitoba was formed into a Province, and a Governor sent from Canada to rule it. Riel headed the opposition, and formed a Provisional Government, demanding a guarantee for the rights of his race. He held out for ten months, but on the approach of a force under Garnet Wolseley his forces disbanded, and lie fled to the United States. The Dominion of Canada, however, accorded Manitoba representation in Parliament, and promised guarantees which have never been fully carried out. Nothing was done for the Saskatchewan half-breeds, and Riel again raised the standard of revolt, and was joined by half-breeds, Crees and Blackfeet.]

March 24.—The Rhode Island House of Representatives passed a resolution favoring an amendment to the Constitution allowing women suffrage.

March 26.—A message was read from the Queen in the House of Commons to the effect that the Reserve Forces and Militia Reserves were to be called out. This caused intense enthusiasm. —The French were defeated by the Chinese in an attack on Dong-Dong.—Lake Erie was crossed on the ice.

March 27.—The Secretary of War announced the intention of the Government to clear Oklahoma of all intruders, whether settlers or ranchmen.

March 28.—A Papal allocution was issued denouncing all diplomats who attended the laying of the corner-stone of a monument to Victor Emanuel.—Langson, in Cochin-China, was evacuated by the French.—The sculling match for the championship of the world and a stake of $5,000, took place at Sydney, New South Wales, between William Beach, of Illawarra, and Edward Hanlan, of Toronto, Canada, and was won by the former.

March 30.—The French Chamber of Deputies refused to vote the Government $40,000,000 on account of military operations in China, and the Ferry Cabinet fell.

March 31.—The half-breed insurgents in the Northwest Territory, Canada, captured the town of Battleford.

METHODISTS, the name originally given, about the year 1729, by a student of Christ-church, to the brothers Wesley, and several other young men of a serious turn of mind, then members of different colleges of Oxford, who used to assemble together on particular nights of the week chiefly for religious conversation. The term was selected, it is believed, in allusion to the exact and methodical manner in which they performed the various engagements which a sense of Christian duty induced them to undertake, such as meeting together for the purpose of studying Scripture, visiting the poor, and prisoners in Oxford jail, at regular intervals. Subsequently it came to be applied to the followers of Wesley and his coadjutors, when these had acquired the magnitude of a new sect; and though their founder himself wished that ‘ the very name,’ to use his own words, might never be mentioned me, but be buried in eternal oblivion,’ yet it has finally come to be accepted by most, if not all of the various denominations who trace their origin mediately or immediately to the great regions movement commenced by John Wesley. For an account of the origin and earlier development of Methodism, see articles on the brothers WESLEY and WHITEFIELD. We confine cursives here to a brief notice of its organization, doctrine, and present condition.

1. Organization.—This appears to have been partly improvised by Wesley to suit the exigencies of his position. It was not a theoretical and premeditated, but a practical and extempore system. In the Rules of the Society of the People called Methodists, drawn up by himself, he says: ‘ In the latter end of the year 1729), eight or ten persons came to me in London, who appeared to be deeply convinced of sin, and earnestly groaning for redemption. They desired (as did two or three more the next day) that I would spend some time with them in prayer, and advise them how to flee from the wrath to come, which they saw continually hanging over their heads. That we might have more time for this great work, I appointed a day when they might all come together, which from thenceforward they did every week, viz., on Thursday, in the evening.’ This he calls ‘the first Methodist Society.’ Its numbers rapidly increased, and similar ’societies’ were soon formed in different parts of England, where the evangelistic labors of the Wesleys had awakened in many minds ‘ a desire to flee from the wrath to come, and be saved from their

sins’—the only condition, we may remark, required of any for admission into these societies. In order to ascertain more minutely how the work of salvation was progressing in individual cases, Lesley subdivided the societies into ‘classes,’ according to their respective places of abode, each class containing about a dozen persons, under the superintendence of a ‘ leader,’ whose duties are partly religious and partly financial. 1. He has to see each person in his class once a week, ‘to inquire how their souls prosper,’ and to encourage, comfort, or censure, as the case may require. 2. To collect the voluntary contributions of his class, and pay it over to the ‘ stewards’ of the society, and to give the ministers all necessary information regarding the spiritual or bodily condition of those under his leadership. For preaching purposes, on the other hand, the societies were aggregated—a certain number of them constituting what is called a circuit. This now generally includes a town, and a rural circle of ten or fifteen miles. To each circuit, two, three, or four ministers are appointed, one of whom is styled the ’superintendent;’ and here they labor for at least one year, and not more than three. Every quarter, the classes are visited by the ministers, who make it a point to converse personally with every member; at the termination of which a ‘circuit-meeting’ is held, composed of ministers, stewards, leaders of classes, lay-preachers. &c.

The stewards (who are taken from the societies) deliver their collections to a circuit-steward, and the financial business of the body is here publicly settled. At this quarterly meeting, candidates for the office of the ministry are proposed by the president, and the nomination is approved or rejected by the members. Still larger associations are the’ districts,’ composed of from ten to twenty circuits, the ministers of which meet once a year, under the presidency of one of their number, for the following par-poses: 1. To examine candidates for the ministry, and to try ‘ cases’ of immorality, heresy, insubordination, or inefficiency on the part of the clergy. 2. To decide preliminary questions concerning the building of chapels. 8. To investigate and determine the claims of the poorer circuits to assistance from the general funds of the body. 4. To elect a representative to the committee of Conference, whose duty is to nominate ministers for the different stations for the ensuing year—their appointments, however, being subject to the revision of Conference. In all the financial, and other purely secular business of the districts, laymen (such as circuit-stewards and others) deliberate and vote equally with the clergy. The supreme Methodist assembly is the ‘ Conference.’ The first was held in 1744, when John Wesley met his brother Charles, two or three other clergymen, and a few of the ‘preachers’—men whom his zeal and fervor had induced to abandon their secular employments, and devote themselves to the message of the Gospel. The purpose for which he called them together was, he says, ‘for the sake of conversing on the affairs of the ” societies” ….. and the result of our consultations we set down to be the rule of our future practice.’ In the course of his life, Wesley presided at forty-seven of these annual assemblies. The Conference now consists of 100 ministers, mostly seniors, who hold their office according to arrangements prescribed in a Deed of Declaration, executed by John Wesley himself, and enrolled in Chancery. But the representatives previously mentioned, and all the ministers allowed by the district committees to attend—who may or may not be members of the legal Conference —sit and vote usually as one body, the 100 confirming their decisions. In this assembly, which is exclusively clerical, every minister’s character is subjected to renewed and strict scrutiny, and if any charge be proved against him, he is dealt with accordingly; candidates for the ministry are examined both publicly and privately, and set apart to their sacred office; the entire proceedings of the inferior courts (if we may so call them) are finally reviewed; and the condition, requirements, and prospects of the body are duly considered.

2. Doctrine and Worship.—Under this head, not much requires to be said. Wesleyan Methodists claim to be considered orthodox, Protestant, and evangelical. The propriety of the last two appellations will probably not be disputed, but a rigid Calvinist might object to the first. They accept the articles of the English Church, but believing these articles to have been framed on a basis of comprehension, they consider themselves at liberty to accept them in an Arminian sense. It must not, however, be supposed that they are out-and-out Arminians. Their great distinguishing doctrine is the universality and freedom of the atonement; hence they reject the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination (which they conceive to be incompatible with the former), but while they maintain the freedom of the will and the responsibility of man, they also maintain his total fall in Adam, and his utter inability to recover himself. If these two appear to the human understanding to conflict, it is nevertheless asserted that the Bible teaches both; and it is objected to high Calvinism, that in its anxiety to be logical, it has shown itself unscriptural. Prominence is also given by the Wesleyan M. to certain points of religion, some of which are not altogether peculiar to them. They insist on the necessity of men who profess to be Christians feeling a personal interest in the blessings of salvation—i. e., the assurance of forgiveness of sins and adoption into the family of God. This, however, is not to be confounded with a certainty of final salvation. They believe the Spirit of God gives no assurance to any man of that, but only of present pardon. In harmony with this view, they reject the doctrine of the necessary perseverance of the saints, and hold that it is fearfully possible to fall from a state of grace, and even to perish at last after having ‘ tasted of the heavenly gift,’ and having been ‘ made partakers of the Holy Ghost.’ They also maintain the perfectibility of Christians, or rather the possibility of their entire sanctification as a privilege to be enjoyed in this life. But Wesley ‘ explains ‘ that’ Christian perfection does not imply an exemption from ignorance or mistake, infirmities or temptations; but it implies the being so crucified with Christ as to be able to testify, “I live not, but Christ liveth in me.” ‘ He regards the sins of a ‘ perfect’ Christian as ‘ involuntary transgressions, and does not think they should be called ‘ sins’ at all, though he admits that they need the atoning blood of Christ. The Wesleyan Methodists in their religious services use more or less the English liturgy; the morning service being read in many of their chapels, and the sacramental offices being required in all. They observe a ‘ watch-night’ on the eve of the New Year, on which occasion the religious services are protracted till midnight, and their chapels are generally crowded to excess; and in the beginning-of the year they hold a ‘ covenant-service,’ at which congregations stand up to a man (though this form is not invariable), and solemnly vow to serve the Lord. But even the ordinary religions services in some places are frequently marked by an ebullition of fervent feeling on the part of the audience, which has a very singular effect upon a stranger.

3. History.—The history of Methodism is for many years the history of Christian effort to evangelize the neglected ‘ masses’ of England. The labors of Wesley, and of those whom he inspired to imitate his example, were of the noblest description, and met with remarkable success. The reformation of life which his preaching produced, for example, among the Kingswood colliers and the Cornwall wreckers, is a testimony to the power of religion which cannot be too highly estimated. The zeal which has inspired the body in regard to foreign missions, although in the highest degree honorable, is only the logical development of their efforts at home —for they originally regarded their society in England as simply a vast ‘ home mission,’ and neither Wesley nor his followers desired to consider themselves a ’sect,’ a new church, in the common usage of the term, but were warmly attached to the old national church, and considered themselves among her true children. When Wesley died (1791), his ‘ societies’ had spread over the United Kingdom, the continent of Europe, the States of America, and the West Indies, and numbered 80,000 members. Since then they have largely increased, and, accord ins; to the Report of the First (Ecumenical Methodist Conference (1881), the number of Wesleyan Methodists belonging to the United Kingdom was 596,528; other British Methodists numbered 336,011; together they had over 5000 ministers, and 52,644 local preachers. The number of adherents over the world was estimated at about 19,-000.000. The annual contributions for purely Methodist purposes in Great Britain average 2-J millions.

The Wesleyan M. have three theological colleges for the training of ministers—one at Richmond Hill, Surrey, a second at Didsbury, South Lancashire, and a third at Headingley, in Yorkshire, besides the establishments at Sheffield and Taunton; two schools for the education of sons of Wesleyan ministers (New Kingswood School and Woodhouse Grove School); and two for the daughters, one at Clapton and another at South port. The boys receive a six years’ and the girls a four years’ course of instruction. They have also interested themselves in elementary education, and for their schools received in 1879 a government grant of £96,700. The Methodist Book-room is situated in the City Road, London, and issues hundreds of thousands of religious publications (tracts, &c.) monthly. The newspapers and other periodicals professedly in connection with the body include four quarterlies and about 150 journals in English and other languages. Among the more eminent Methodist authors may be named the two Wesleys, Fletcher, Benson, Clarke, Moore, Watson, Drew, Edmonson, Sutcliffe, Jackson, Treffry, Rule, Nichols, Smith, and Etheridge.

METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, the name given to the Society of Wesleyan M. in the United States of America, where the first members of that body—immigrants from Ireland—established themselves as a religious society in New York in the year 1766. In the course of a year or two, their numbers had considerably increased, and they wrote to John Wesley to send them out some competent preachers. Two immediately offered themselves for the work, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor, who were followed in 1771 by Francis Asbury and Richard Wright. The agitations preceding the War of Independence, which soon afterwards broke out, interrupted the labors of the English Methodist preachers in America, all of whom, with the exception of Asbury, returned home before the close of the year 1777; but their place appears to have been supplied by others of native origin, and they continued to prosper, so that, at the termination of the revolutionary struggle, they numbered 43 preachers and 13,740 members. Up to this time, the American Wesleyan M. had laid no claim to being a distinct religious organization. Like Wesley himself, they regarded themselves as members of the English Episcopal Church, or rather of that branch of it then existing- in America, and their ‘preachers’ as a body of irregular auxiliaries to the ordained clergy. ‘Episcopal churches,’ we are informed, ‘ are still standing °in New York and elsewhere, at whose altars Embury, Pilmoor, Boardman, Strawbridge, Asbury, and Rankin, the earliest Methodist preachers, received the holy communion.’ But the recognition of the United States as an independent country, and the difference of feelings and interests that necessarily sprung up between the congregations at home and those in America, rendered the formation of an independent society inevitable. Wesley became conscious of this, and met the emergency in a manner as bold as it was unexpected. He himself was only a presbyter of the Church of England, but having pursuaded himself that in the primitive church a presbyter and a bishop were one and the same order, differing only as to their official functions, he assumed the office of the latter, and, with the assistance of some other presbyters who had joined his movement, he set apart and ordained the Rev. Thomas Coke, D.C.L., of Oxford University, bishop of the infant church, September 2, 1784.

Coke immediately sailed for America, and appeared, with his credentials, at the Conference held at Baltimore, December 25 of the same year. He was unanimously recognized by the assembly of preachers, appointed Asbury coadjutor bishop, and ordained several preachers to the offices of deacon and elder. Wesley also granted the preachers permission (which shows the extensive ecclesiastical power he wielded) to organize a separate and independent church under the Episcopal form of government: hence arose the ‘ Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of America.’ Nevertheless, there was not a few who were dissatisfied with the Episcopal form of government. This feeling grew stronger and stronger, until, in 1830, a secession took place, and a new ecclesiastical organization was formed, called the METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH, whose numbers, according to the returns for 1881, amounted to 113,405 members and 1314 preachers. In 1842, a second secession took place, chiefly on the question of slavery —the seceders pronouncing all slave-holding sinful, and excluded slave-holders from the church membership and Christian fellow ship; and in 1843, a meeting was held at Utica, New York, where a new society was constituted and named the WESLEYAN METHODIST CONNECTION OF AMERICA, whose members, according to the returns for 1881, amounted to 25,000, and its preachers to 250. But in 1844 a far larger and more important secession took place on the same question, when the whole of the Methodist societies in the then slave-holding states, conceiving themselves aggrieved by the proceedings instituted at the general conference of New York (1844) against the Rev. James O. Andrew, D.D., one of the bishops, and a citizen of Georgia, who had married a lady possessed of slaves, resolved to break off connection with their northern brethren. Hence originated the METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, SOUTH, whose members in 1881, were as follows; Traveling-preachers, 4004; local preachers, 5832; and members, 840,000, including whites, colored, and Indians. To these must be added 391,044 members forming the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and 323,921 of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church. In 1869, a movement (unsuccessful) began in favor of the re-union of the northern and southern Methodist Episcopal Churches, slavery, the main obstacle in the way, having been finally abolished. It may here be stated that the members of the Northern Methodist Episcopal Church amounted in 1881 to 1,743,000.

Returning to the English Wesleyan M., we now proceed to mention the various secessions from the parent body in the order of time.

1. THE METHODIST NEW CONNECTION.—This society detached itself from the older one in 1797. Its doctrines and order are the same; the only difference being that it admits one layman to each minister into the Conference, and allows them to share in the transaction of all business, both secular and spiritual. These laymen are chosen either by the circuits, or by ‘guardian representatives ‘ elected for life by the conference. In 1881, the numbers of the New Connection were : members, 31,652; preachers, 183. There were in addition a large number of members on probation.

2. PRIMITIVE METHODISTS, vulgarly designated RANTERS, were first formed into a society in 1810, though the founders had separated from the old society some years before. The immediate cause of this separation was a disagreement as to the propriety of camp-meetings for religious purposes; and also upon the question of females being permitted to preach. A third point of difference is the admission to their conference of two lay delegates for every minister. In 1881, their numbers were : members, 15,600; preachers, 1150.

3. INDEPENDENT METHODISTS, who separated in 1810. They are chiefly distinguished by their rejection of a paid ministry, and number in England and Scotland : members, 4000; preachers, 290; scholars, 6000.

4. BIBLE CHRISTIANS, also called BRYANITES, were formed by a local preacher named Bryan, who seceded from the Wesleyans in 1815. The only distinction between them and the original body appears to be that the former receive the eucharistic elements in a sitting posture. In 1881, their numbers were: members, 31,542; preachers, 302.

5. UNITED FREE CHURCH METHODISTS have been recently formed by the amalgamation of two sects of nearly equal numerical strength. The older of these, called the WESLEYAN ASSOCIATION, originated in 1834 in the removal of one or two influential ministers from the original connection. Points of difference subsequently appeared with regard to the constitution of the conference.—The younger sect, called the WESLEYAN REFORM ASSOCIATION, took its rise in 1849 through the expulsion of several ministers from the parent body on a charge of insubordination, and being founded on the same principles as the last-mentioned community, arrangements were entered into for their union, which was subsequently effected. Church independency, and freedom of representation in the annual assembly, are two of the most prominent distinctive traits in the organization of the United Methodist Free Church. Their united numbers in 1881 were: members, 79,756; ministers, 432; local preachers, 3403.— The Wesleyan Reform, Union consists of about 18 ministers and 1745 members, who have not amalgamated with the Methodist Free Churches.

This is perhaps also the most convenient place to notice the WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODISTS - They are not a secession from the followers of Wesley, but originated partly in the preaching of his friend and fellow-evangelist, Whitefield, and partly in that of Howel Harris, a Welsh clergyman of the Church of England. Whitefield was a Calvinist; Wesley, as we have seen, was on some points decidedly Arminian. A difference arose between them on the subject of election. Henceforward their paths lay in different directions. Whitefield, however, did not form a religious sect; and after his death (1769), his followers, being left without any distinct bond or organization, either followed the leading of the Countess of Huntingdon (q. v.), or became distributed among other denominations, a large portion, especially in Wales, becoming absorbed in the new society gradually forming itself through the preaching of Howell Harris and his coadjutors. This body, however, was not formally constituted a religious society till the beginning of this century.

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT in criminal jurisprudence is the punishment of death. It is called capital punishment because the head (Lat. Caput), from being the most vital, is usually that part of the body which is acted on. This applies especially to beheading and hanging; but almost all modes of depriving a criminal of life appear to have in view the peculiar vulnerability, and, at the same time, vitality of the head. This extreme penalty, notwithstanding the practice of the world from the remotest times down to the present day, has frequently been reprobated by philosophers and philanthropists, who have even gone so far as to deny the right so to punish to any earthly power. The weight of authority, however, appears in favor of capital punishment. Mr. Bentham, one of the most reasonable and discriminating authorities on the subject, in his well-known and valuable treatise, says, that the idea of C. P. would naturally suggest itself in the infancy of a state. When any one had committed an offence, and disturbed the peace of society, the question would then first arise : ‘ How shall we prevent these things ?’ and the answer most likely to occur to a set of barbarians would be : ‘ Extirpate the offender, and give yourself no further trouble about him.’ And in conformity with this view of the matter, he alludes in a note to the case of the Hottentots, who have no fixed laws to direct them in the distribution of justice, and consequently, when an offence has been committed, there is no form of trial, or proportion of punishments to offences; but the kraal (village) is called together, the delinquent is placed in the midst, and without further ceremony, demolished with their clubs, the chief striking the first blow. The Marquis Beccaria, in his remarkable Essay on Crimes and Punishments, strongly argues against the capital sentence being carried out in any case, denying the right, in fact, of government so to punish, and maintaining, besides, that it is a less efficacious method of deterring others, than the continued example of a living culprit condemned, by laboring as a slave, to repair the injury he has done to society.

Bentham. on the contrary, holds that death is regarded by most men as the greatest of all evils ; and that especially among those who are attached to life by the ties of reputation, affection, enjoyment, hope, or fear, it appears to be a more efficacious punishment than any other. On the question of right, Beccaria is still more pointedly refuted by Sir Samuel Romilly, who observed : ‘ Beccaria and his disciples confess that it is not the greatest of evils, and recommend other punishments as being more severe and effectual, forgetting undoubtedly, that if human tribunals have a right to inflict a severer punishment than death, they must have a right to inflict death itself’ (Memoirs, vol. iii. p. 278). It is not a little interesting to know, that such was the opinion of one who did so much as a statesman to mitigate the severity of the criminal law.

Against C. P. arguments are often urged from Scripture, based on the general principle of Christian charity. To these it is replied that they proceed on a misapprehension and misapplication of the principle ; and reference is confidently made to the Old Testament as sufficiently exhibiting the mind of the great Lawgiver in regard to this matter.

Death was, in former times in England, the ordinary punishment for all felonies, and the certain doom of those who could not avail themselves of benefit of clergy (q. v.), i.e., the common law inflicted death on every felon who could not read, and the law implied that punishment, where a statute made any new offence felony. On the other hand, the numerous act of parliament creating felonies without benefit of clergy, show that the statute law was still more sanguinary, so that of the 160 offences referred to by Blackstone as punishable with death, four-fifths had been made so during the reigns of the first three Georges. That some idea may be formed of such Draconian justice as was then established, we may mention the following as among the offences which involve sentence of death—stealing in a dwelling-house to the amount of 40s.; stealing privately in a shop goods of the value of 5s.; counterfeiting the stamps that were used for the sale of perfumery! and doing the same with the stamps used for the certificates for hair powder ! Thanks, however, to the exertions of Sir Samuel Romilly, the inhumanity and impolicy of such a state of the criminal code gave way, towards the end of the reign of George III., to a course of legislation which has reduced the application of death as a punishment within its present humane limits.

Practically, indeed, it is only in the case of treason and murder that the capital sentence is ever pronounced; and even then, it is not always carried out, for the crown reserves to itself and exercises a right of review which frequently leads to such a change in the convict’s fate as at least spares his life. This discretional control on the part of the executive is essential in the present state of the law, which affords no means for a judicial appeal on the merits; for the very nature of the punishment, when finally executed, precludes the idea of all benefit to the sufferer, should the verdict of the jury afterwards turn out erroneous, and the innocence, instead of the guilt, of the accused be established. The law as it stands, indeed, allows a capital sentence to be reversed if technical error can be shown on the face of the judgment or other matter of record—but what avails that, after the sentence has been executed?

In Scotland, the administration of the criminal law has perhaps been, on the whole, as severe as in England. Mr. Erskine says, that ‘ those crimes that are in their consequences most hurtful to society, are punished capitally or by death,’ a category that is certainly sufficiently indefinite; and anciently, it might be shown that the executions in Scotland for offences corresponding to those which were capitally punished in England, were, in proportion to the population, quite as numerous as those in the latter country, But in the more modern practice of Scotland, capital sentence was only pronounced in the four pleas of the crown—viz., murder, rape, robbery, and wilful fire-raising, to which may be added housebreaking. At present the penal system in Scotland may be said to be identical with that in England, death, as a punishment, being only inflicted in the case of convictions for murder.

With respect to the mode of executing C. P., we need not detain the reader by any account of the obsolete cruelties and tortures of former times. It may suffice to state that hanging and beheading are the two methods which now, for the most part, are practised in the different European states, indeed, with the exception of Spain, by all. In the last country, the death of the culprit is instantaneously caused by the Garrotte (q. v.). In England, Scotland, and Ireland, and in all the dependencies of the crown, the convict is hanged; while in France he is decapitated by the Guilotine (q. v.), an instrument which the old Scotch Maiden (q. v.) very much resembled. In Germany, beheading is the mode of execution adopted; but in Austria, criminals convicted of capital offences are hanged, as in England. Capital punishment was abolished in Switzerland, Holland, Portugal, Roumania, and about 1874 in some of the United States, as Wisconsin, Maine, and Iowa. In the latter state it was restored in 1878; in 1881 the power was conferred on the several Swiss cantons of deciding whether to restore the punishment of death or not; and some of them immediately took advantage of the permission. See EXECUTION.

See Basil Montagu On the Punishment of Death (1813); of Sir Samuel Romilly (1840), and his writings; Bentham,. of Punishment (1830); Beccaria, Essay on Crimes and Punishments (1775); Berner Die Abschaffungdes Todesstrafe (1861); Mittermaier, Die Todesstrafe (1862; Eng. edition by J. M. Moir); Von Holtzendorff, Das Verbrechendes Mordesunddie Todesstrafe (1874); Clode’s Administration of Justice under Military Law.

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT IN THE ARMY AND NAVY.—1. In the Army.—The law on this subject is covered by the Army Discipline and Regulation Act (1879), which is a consolidation of the Mutiny Act, the Articles of War, and other acts; it is kept in force by a short Continuous Act passed annually. The offences punishable with death are as follows. (1) Any officer or soldier who shall excite or join in any mutiny or sedition in any forces belonging to her Majesty’s army, or Royal Marines, or who shall not use his utmost endeavors to suppress it, and knowing of it, shall not give immediate information of it to his commanding officer; or (2) who shall hold correspondence with, or give advice or intelligence to, any rebel or enemy of her Majesty; or (3) who shall treat with any rebel or enemy without her Majesty’s license of the chief commander; or (4) shall misbehave himself before the enemy; or (5) shall shamefully abandon or deliver up any garrison, fortress, post, or guard committed to his charge; or (6) shall compel the governor or commanding officer to deliver up or abandon such place; or (7) shall induce others to misbehave before the enemy, or abandon or deliver up their posts; or (8) shall desert her Majesty’s service; or (9) shall leave his post before being regularly relieved, or shall sleep on his post; or (10) shall strike or offer any violence to his superior officer, being in the execution of his office, or shall disobey any lawful command of his superior officer; or (11) who, being confined in a military prison, shall offer any violence against a visitor or other his superior military officer, being in the execution of his duty.

No judgment of death by a court-martial shall pass, unless two-thirds at least of the officers present shall concur therein; and judgment of death may be commuted for penal servitude for any term not less than four years, or for imprisonment for such term is shall seem meet.

The employment of a soldier in the service subsequent to his arrest on a capital charge, may operate as a remission of the lenience of death. In 1811, a private of the 3d Buffs was sentenced to be shot, but by a mistake was permitted to serve in an engagement with the enemy, after he had been put into arrest for to crime. On this ground, the Duke of Wellington pronounced that he was under the necessity of pardoning, the prisoner.

In the army, C. P. is inflicted by the offender being either shot or hanged—the latter being the more disgraceful mode of execution.

2. In the Navy.—These are regulated by the 22 Geo. II. c. 33, amended by the 29 and 30 Vict. c. 109, and other acts. Certain offences in the navy, whether on board ship or on shore, were punished with death absolutely, without any discretion in the court to alter or mitigate the sentence. But, by the 10 and 11 Vict., this severity is removed (excepting in the cases of murder or other unnatural offences mentioned in the act), and courts-martial are authorized to abstain from pronouncing judgment of death, if they shall think fit, and to impose such other punishment instead as the nature and degree of the offence may deserve. In this discretionary sense, the following offences are punishable, in the navy, with death : (1) The holding illegal correspondence with an enemy; (2) the not acquainting, within 12 hours after the opportunity to do so, the commander-in-chief, or other superior officer of the squadron, with any message from an enemy or rebel; (3) all spies bringing seducing letters from an enemy or rebel, or endeavoring to corrupt any one in the fleet to betray his trust; (4) the relieving an enemy or rebel in any way, directly or indirectly; (5) not preparing for fight when duty commands, or not making due preparations on likelihood of engagement, and not encouraging the inferior officers and men to fight courageously; (6) the treacherously or cowardly yielding or crying for quarter; (7) disobeying orders in time of action, or not using all possible endeavors to put the same effectually in execution; (8) being guilty of cowardice or neglect of duty in time of action; (9) through cowardice, negligence, or disaffection, forbearing to pursue the chase of an enemy, pirate, or rebel, beaten or flying, or not relieving or assisting a known friend in view to the utmost; (10) deserting to the enemy, or running away with any of her majesty’s ships or their belongings, or any pieces to the weakening of the service, or cowardly or treacherously yielding up the same; (11) deserting simply, or enticing others so to do; (12)making, or endeavoring to make, any mutinous assembly on any pretense whatever; (13) uttering words of sedition or mutiny; (14) concealing traitorous or mutinous practices or designs; (15) striking a superior officer, or offering any violence to him, being in execution of his office, on any pretense whatsoever; (16) unlawfully taming or setting fire to any ship property or furniture, not then appertaining to an enemy, pirate, or rebel; (17) neglect in steering any of her Majesty’s ships, so that the same be stranded, split, or hazarded; (18) sleeping on watch, or negligently performing duty, or forsaking station; and (19) robbery.

It is stated by Mr. Prendergast, in his Law Relating to Officers in to Army, that a sentence of death pronounced by a court-martial does not operate as an absolute dismissal from the service; for if the offender should be pardoned, he is restored to his former position. But though a pardon operates as a restoration to the service, the greater question still remains to be judicially decided, whether a restoration to the service operates as a pardon. This question is inseparably connected with the fate of the gallant but unfotunate Sir Walter Raleigh. He had been condemned to death for alleged participation in a treasonable plot to raise Arabella Stuart to the throne; and, after undergoing 13 years’ imprisonment, he received from James I., by a commission under Great Seal, the command of a fleet and army fitted out against Spanish possessions in South America, with power of life and death over the king’s subjects serving in the expedition. The enterprise failed; and on Sir Walter’s return to England, James caused his head to be struck off, according to the sentence originally pronounced. On showing cause against his execution, Sir Walter pleaded that his commission was tantamount to a pardon, and quoted a case of a man who had been condemned for felony, then pardoned on account of his subsequent service in the wars of Gascony. Lord Chief-Justice Montague, however, held that though an implied pardon of the kind cited might hold good in felony, that treason could only be pardoned by express words. There is the high legal authority of the late Lord Chancellor Campbell (Lives of the Chief-Justices, vol. i. pp. 357, 358) for saying that the chief-justice declared and expounded the law soundly; and that in strictness Sir Walter’s attainder, under the former judgment, could only be done away with by letters-patent under the Great Seal, expressly reciting the treason, and granting a free pardon. See, on the subject of these two articles, ARTICLES OF WAR, and MUTINY ACT.

As to the mode of C. P. in the navy, the culprit where he is an officer, is shot; where he is a common seaman, he is usually hanged at the yard-arm.

HYSTE’RIA (so called from the Greek word hystera, the womb) is a disease which stimulates so many other diseases, that it is not easy to describe it with the brevity which the limits of this work necessitate.

The hysterical fit or paroxysm—the most marked form or manifestation of the disorder—is almost, though not exclusively, confined to women, and chiefly to young women. In a severe case, the trunk and limbs are strongly convulsed; the patient struggles violently, retracting and extending her legs, and twisting her body with such force that the aid of three or four strong persons is often required to prevent a slight and apparently feeble girl from injuring herself or others. ‘ The head,’ says Dr. Watson in his Lectures, ‘ is generally thrown backwards, and the throat projects; the face is flushed; the eyelids are closed and tremulous; the nostrils distended; the jaws often firmly shut; but there is no distortion of the countenance. If the hands are left at liberty, she will often strike her breast repeatedly and quickly, or carry her fingers to her throat, as if to remove some oppression there; or she will sometimes tear her hair, or rend her clothes, or attempt to bite those about her. After a short time, this violent agitation is calmed; but the patient lies panting, and trembling, and starting at the slightest noise or the gentlest touch; or sometimes she remains motionless during the remission, with a fixed eye; till all at once the convulsive movements are renewed; and this alternation of spasm and quiet will go on for a space of time that varies considerably in different cases; and the whole attack frequently terminates in an explosion of tears, and sobs, and convulsive laughter.’

In another less frequent form of the affection, the patient suddenly sinks down insensible and without convulsions : after remaining for some time in this state, with flushed cheeks, a turgid neck, and irregular breathing, she recovers consciousness, but remains for some time depressed, in spirits and fatigued.

During the attack, especially in the first variety, the patient complains of uneasiness in the abdomen, and of a sensation as if a ball was rolling about, and rising first to the region of the stomach, and then to the throat, where she feels as if were being choked. The abdomen is distended with wind, which moves with a loud rumbling sound along the intestinal canal, and is often discharged by eructation. Towards the close of the fit, but more commonly after it is over, a large quantity of pale limpid urine is discharged.

In many respects, this affection resembles Epilepsy (q, v.). According to Dr. Marshall Hall, the most essential difference is this : that in hysteria, much as the larynx may be affected, is never closed; while in epilepsy, it is closed. Hence, in the former, we have heaving, sighing inspiration; and in the latter, violent, ineffectual efforts at expiration.

The hysterical fit varies in duration from a quarter of an hour or less to many hours.

The persons who suffer from hysteria are commonly young women in whom the process of menstruation is disordered, and who are either naturally feeble, or have been debilitated by disease or want; and in patients of this kind, the hysteria, or the hysterical tendency, is apt to show itself in mimicking so faithfully many of the most important diseases, that the physician has often great difficulty in determining the true nature of the case Among the disorders that may be thus simulated by hysteria are, inflammation of the peritoneum (or Peritonitis, q. v.), various forms of palsy, inflammation of the larynx (or Laryngitis, q, v.), inability to swallow (or Dysphagia), painful affection of the breast, disease of the hip and knee joints, and disease of the spine. Many of these cases of pseudo-disease come to a sudden favorable termination under some strong mental or moral emotions. Those who are old enough to recollect the morbid religious excitement that prevailed at the time when Irving and his followers believed in the ‘unknown tongues,’ can hardly fail to remember the remarkable, or, as many regarded it, the miraculous cure of a young paralytic lady, who was made to believe that if, on a certain day, she prayed for recovery with sufficient faith, her prayer would be answered, and she would recover at once. She did so, and her palsy instantly disappeared. This case, which was regarded by the believers in the movement as a direct answer to prayer, and as inaugurating a new era of miraculous cures, admits of easy and rational explanation by some psychologists. There are various instances on record where, in a similar way, an alarm of fire has instantly cured an hysterical paralysis that had lasted for years.

In the cases already noticed, the patient is not guilty of wilfully deceiving the physician; but in other instances they an found to practice the most remarkable impositions, pretending by various frauds to be suffering from spitting of blood, from stone in the bladder, &c., or to be living without food of any kind.

Hysteria is a very troublesome affection to deal with, because it is very readily induced by example, or, as Dr. Watson terms it, is propagable by moral contagion. If, in a hospital ward or in a factory where many young women are congregated, one girl goes off in a fit, all the others who may happen to have a hysterical tendency will probably follow her example. In such cases, a decided order that the next girl who is attacked shall be treated with the actual cautery, or even with the cold affusion, will often have a marvelous effect in checking the spread of the disorder.

During the fit, the treatment to be adopted is to prevent the patient from injuring herself, to loosen her dress, and to admit an abundance of fresh cool air; to dash cold water upon the face and chest; and, if she can swallow, to administer a couple of ounces of the asafœtida mixture, or a drachm of the ammoniated tincture of valerian in a wine-glass of water. After the paroxysm is over, the patient should have an active purge, and the bowels should be kept properly open by aloetic aperients; and the shower-bath, preparations of iron, and tonic treatment generally should be adopted, and all abnormal bodily and mental excitement, such as late parties in hot rooms, novel-reading, &c., carefully avoided.

CA’NCER, a disease characterized by slow alterations of structure, or tumors in various parts of the body, occurring either simultaneously or in a certain order of succession. In many cases, an isolated tumor in an external part is the earliest symptom; it is then viewed as the starting-point of the disease, and is termed a malignant tumor (tumor mali moris), from its presumed tendency to infect the system, and to cause the reproduction of growths similar to itself. It is right, however, to remark, that upon the pathology of C. authorities are by no means agreed, some holding that a constitutional taint or diathesis must always precede any local development of C., and that the first growth in point of time (or primary C.) is therefore only the first of a series determined by a pre-existing cause in the blood or general system; while others hold that C. is originally a truly local disease, or even that a growth at first simple (non -malignant or benign), may, in consequence of local causes, degenerate—i.e., become cancerous, and infect the whole system with the morbid tendency thus secondarily acquired. The discussion of this disputed question involves statements of a too complicated kind to be in place here; but it is a question of considerable importance, as bearing on the probability or improbability of curing the disease by extirpating the primary tumor at an early stage of its development. All authorities are agreed that, when any trace of secondary C. exists, the removal of the parts affected gives scarcely any hope of a favorable result, and, accordingly, operations under these circumstances, unless merely for the relief of local suffering, are discountenanced by all respectable surgeons.

The disease, however, is one of which the ignorant as well as the learned have a well-founded dread, and hence it presents a large field for the practice of imposture, and for that less deliberate, but often not less hurtful kind of quackery which is the result of pure ignorance, grafted on a meddlesome desire to do good. We propose to give such a sketch of the characters and progress of cancerous disease as may serve, in some degree, as a protection against ignorance on the one hand, and deception on the other. The leading character of C. being a tumor or morbid growth in apart, it is important, in the first place, to observe that not all, nor even the majority, of morbid growths are cancerous. A very large proportion of growths, involving swelling or change of structure in a part, are either determined by a previous process of inflammation—leading to chronic abscess and induration—or belong to what is called the non-malignant order of tumors—e.g., cysts, fatty and fibrous tumors, simple hypertrophy of glandular structures, cartilaginous, bony, calcareous, and vascular growths. See tumors. Further, among the tumors admitted by general consent into the order of cancerous, there are widely different degrees of malignancy or cancerousness, so to speak; some having the tendency to spread rapidly, and infect the system at an early period, while others remain local for a considerable time and may be removed while yet local, with good hope of a permanent recovery.

Now, the practical distinction, or diagnosis, to use the technical phrase, of these different tumors, is founded upon a very careful and delicate appreciation of the characters of the malignant and non-malignant tumors, considered as morbid products, and also upon a thorough knowledge of the anatomy and relations of the textures in which they arise. One of the leading characters of malignant tumors is the tendency to involve, by a kind of specific destruction or degeneration, the ultimate elements of the textures in which they arise, and in which they spread. The attempt, therefore, to distinguish these from other growths, must always call for the highest qualities of the surgeon—large experience, guided at every step by consummate science, and, in particular, by minute and thorough knowledge of natural structure. And the difficulties of the inquiry are such, that even in the dead body, or in a tumor excised from the living body, all the resources of the anatomist, aided by the microscope, will occasionally fail in distinctly and surely discovering the true character of the morbid structure.

The most common seats of C. are, among external parts, the female breast, the eye, the tongue, the lip, the male genital organs, and the bones; among internal organs, the liver, stomach, uterus, rectum, gullet, peritoneum, and lymphatic glands. Some of these parts are more liable to primary, others to secondary cancer. Thus, the female breast, the neck of the uterus, the lower lip, the scrotum, the extremity of the penis, are very often the seats of a single cancerous tumor, which in its early stage at least seems to be unconnected with any constitutional taint; while the liver, the bones, and the lymphatic glands are more frequently the seats of secondary or multiple cancerous tumors. There are also differences in the character of the C. itself, apart from its anatomical seat, which are to be taken into account in estimating the probability of its being solitary. Some of these differences are regarded by pathologists as amounting almost to specific distinctions; thus, scirrhus, or hard C., observed most frequently in the breast, uterus, and stomach, is more frequently solitary than encephaloid (brain-like), otherwise called medullary, or soft C.; again, melanosis, or melanic C., a variety charged with a brown or black pigment, is almost always multiple in its occurrence; while epithelial C., or epithelioma, as it has been recently termed, of which examples are frequently found in the lip, scrotum, penis, or tongue, is so generally solitary as to have led some pathologists to place it in a class altogether apart from the truly cancerous growths, with which, however, it presents too many points of affinity in its fatal tendency to recur after operation, and to infect the lymphatic glands and other structures adjoining the part primarily affected. Again, there are certain varieties of fibrous and of cartilaginous tumor, as well us certain tumors of bone, and bone-like tumors developed in soft parts (osteoid), which must be regarded in the meantime, as occupying a doubtful position between the malignant and non-malignant growths. Paget, (Lectures on Surgical Pathology, vol. ii.). Generally speaking, a tumor may be said to fall under the suspicion of being C. when it more or less completely infiltrates the texture in which it arises, and passes from it into the surrounding textures; when it invades the lymphatic glands adjoining the part first affected; when it is attended by stinging or darting pains, or by obstinate and slowly extending ulceration, not due to pressure; when it occurs in a person having impaired health, or past the middle period of life, and is not traceable to any known cause of inflammatory disease or local irritation, nor to any other known constitutional disease, such as syphilis or scrofula. The probabilities are of course increased if the tumor be in one of the habitual seats of C., or if it be attended by evidence of disease in some internal organ known to be frequently thus affected.

But it is hardly necessary to point out that the very complex elements of diagnosis here referred to ought to be always submitted to the scrutiny and judgment of a well-educated medical adviser, whose skill and personal character place him above suspicion, before the disease has assumed such a form as to be beyond the reach of remedial procedure. The patient who broods in secret over a suspicion of C., or who declines to apply for advice from a fear of encountering the truth, is in all probability only cherishing the seeds of future suffering; while if, as often happens, the suspicion is unfounded, a few minutes’ careful examination would suffice to remove a source of misery which otherwise would poison the mind for years.

These remarks apply still more emphatically to the misguided persons who trust to the non-professional cancer curer, or to the quasi-professional specialist. The charlatan, who pretends to hold in his hands a secret remedy for this most terrible disease, will invariably be found to pronounce almost every tumor C., and every C. curable. By this indiscriminating procedure, and by the fallacious promise of a cure without an operation, many persons who have never been affected with C. at all, have been persuaded to submit to the slow torture of successive cauterizations by powerful caustics, at the expense of needless mutilation and no small risk of life. In other cases, truly cancerous tumors have been removed slowly and imperfectly, at the cost of frightful and protracted sufferings, only to return at the end of a few weeks; and Mr. Spencer Wells has lately shown that in some notorious instances persons were reported as cured, when they had actually died of the disease at no long period after the supposed cure was stated to have taken place. (Cancer and Cancer-curers, London,1860).

What is really known as to the cure of C., may be stated in few words. Modern pathological researches render it probable that a complete suspension of the progress of C. sometimes, though rarely, takes place; and individual tumors are found not unfrequently to undergo partial healing, or even to become entirely metamorphosed into inert cicatrices, while others, associated with them, continue to advance. The degree of rapidity of the advance of C. is also, as we have already stated, exceedingly variable. But these observations modify only to a very slight degree the general doctrine, that C. is a disease tending to fatal issue, and hardly, if at all, under the control of remedies, as to its ultimate result. The removal of a cancerous tumor, indeed, is still resorted to by surgeons; and there appears to be no reasonable doubt that when performed early, and in well-selected cases, it has been followed by long-continued exemption.

But the occasional spontaneous arrest of such growths on the one hand, and the doubtful results of operation in a large proportion of cases on the other, have combined to render surgeons of late years more chary of the use of the knife. In aged persons, in particular, the question often resolves itself into a calculation of the chances of life, founded on a great number of conflicting data, and only to be solved by a careful attention to the state of the general health, as well as to the rate of progress of the local disease. Operations are now very rarely performed after the lymphatic glands are involved, or when there is evidence of a deteriorated constitution, or of internal disease; but sometimes great pain, or profuse and exhausting discharge from an external tumor, may justify its removal, as a palliative measure, even under these unfavorable circumstances. For the mode of removal of cancerous and other tumors, see tumors.

Among the lower animals, this disease is more rare; nevertheless, cases are not unfrequent, presenting the same malignant characters as those observed in the human subject. Usually manifesting itself in the form of a specific tumor of some organ or tissue, there is a tendency to the invasion of other parts of the system, and the development of a constitutional state called the cancerous cachexia. M. U. Leblanc of Paris, the best veterinary authority on this subject, has shown that the dog and cat are most frequently affected with C.; and next in frequency comes the pig, ox, horse, and mule. It has not been observed in birds, reptiles, or fishes. Females are more liable to C. than males. It is hereditary, but not transmissible from animals to man. or from one animal to another. It does not disappear under the influence of remedies, but, if possible, the tumors should be excised when first seen, and if the knife fail to extirpate the malady, cauterization should be had recourse to. A relapse is almost certain; but Leblanc says there is greater chance for the patient, when a carnivorous animal, if it is kept on a strictly vegetable diet.

HO’TTENTOTS is the name generally given by Europeans to a singular race of people, supposed to be descended from the aborigines of Southern Africa, and now dwelling for the most part in and about the English settlement of the Cape of Good Hope. The origin of the name Hottentot is uncertain. Some think it is of Dutch origin; a word coined by the early Dutch settlers to convey by the sounds Hot en Tot, Hot and Tot, some idea of the peculiar clicking noise made by the people when speaking. Dampier, however, wrote the name Hodmadods, instead of H.; and Prichard says that it is probably a corruption of Houteniqua, the name of a particular tribe now extinct, or at least unknown. They now call themselves by various names, supposed to be those of tribes, as Attaquas, Hessaquas, Dammaras, Saabs or Saaps, Namaquas, and Koranas; and by the collective name of Gkhuigkhui or Khoikhoin (’ men,’ to distinguish themselves from Bushmen).

Ethnologically, the H. form a distant group of races, unconnected with the Bantu tribes (Kaffirs. &c.), who are their neighbors, and probably not allied with the Bushmen. Latham put them in his second great division of the human family—Atlantidæ. By Blumenbach, they were ranged under his third division race—the Ethiopians. But the H. are not like the negroes, and are more akin to the Mongolians; having broad foreheads, high cheek-bones, oblique eyes, and a dirty, olive-colored complexion. The width of the orbits, their distance from each other, the large size of the occipital foramen, are points in which the H. resemble the northern Asiatics, and even the Esquimaux. The person of the Hottentot, when young, is remarkable for its symmetry. The joints and extremities are small, and the males look almost as effeminate as the women. The face, however, is in general extremely ugly, and with age this ugliness increases. Sir John Barrow, in describing the Hottentot women, observes of them that before child-bearing they are models of proportion, every joint and limb rounded and well turned, their hands and feet small and delicate, and their gait by no means deficient in grace.

‘ Their charms, however, are very fleeting. At an early period of life, and immediately after the first child, their breasts begin to grow loose and flaccid, and as old age approaches, become distended to an enormous size; the belly protrudes; and the hinder parts swelling out to incredible dimensions, give to the spine a degree of curvature inwards that makes it appear as if the os coccygis or bone at the lower extremity of the spine, was elongated and bent outwards, which is not the case.’ The appearance of the Bosjesmen or Bushmen (q. v.), who maybe a degraded branch of the H., is still more unattractive.

The language of the H. is quite as singular as their personal appearance. It has been called ‘the click language,’ and has also been compared to the clucking of a hen when she has laid an egg. The dress of the Hottentot in his native state is exceedingly simple, being merely a strip of the skin of some animal tied round the waist, from which there depends a sort of apron, that hangs down both before and behind . This is nearly the same for both sexes, so that in the summer both go almost naked, protecting their persons from the sun by a covering of grease; but in the winter they’ have a sort of cloak made with skins, that covers nearly the whole body. The H. live in kraals or villages, consisting of a number j of circular huts like bee-hives. They have both oxen and sheep, in the management of which they show great skill. They are also addicted to the chase, in which they use poisoned arrows, javelins, and spears. Their only manufacture is a rude kind of earthenware; except, of course, that they make their own sheepskin clothes, such as they are, also their bows and arrows, and other weapons. Like most savages, they have some taste for music, which they practise upon a rude sort of guitar with three strings, and a flute made of the bark of trees. Of religion, it appears to be but very little notion among the H., and they hail no particular observances at either births, marriages, or funerals. Dr. Prichard, however, observes of them :’Although the wild tribes of the Hottentot race display ferocity and all the other vices of savage life, yet we have abundant proof that these people are not insusceptible of the blessings of civilization and Christianity. No uncultivated people appear to have received the instructions of the Moravian missionaries more readily than the Hottentots, or to have been more fully reclaimed and Christianized.’

The H., as a distinct race, first became known to Europeans about the year 1509, when Francisco d’Almeyda, Viceroy of India, landing at Table Bay, was killed, with about seventy of his followers, in a scuffle with the natives. They were afterwards frequently visited by navigators from different countries; but no authentic accounts reached Europe respecting them until the Dutch settled in the Cape of Good Hope in the middle of the 17th century.

The H. were then much more numerous than at present, but upon becoming addicted to rum and brandy, their numbers diminished gradually. Many of the tribes parted with their flocks and herds to procure the fire-water, and eventually they became the absolute slaves of the Dutch settlers or Boers. From this condition they have been delivered by the enlightened and humane policy of the British government; and as free laborers they make excellent herdsmen and drovers. Their number at present is thought to amount to about fifteen, or from that to twenty thousand, not including those who in all probability may be found dwelling more in the interior. Of the Bushmen, no numerical estimate has been formed. They are widely scattered throughout the English settlements, but their numbers must be very small, while their wretched and degraded habits are such that it is thought they will soon become utterly extinct.

DINO’RNIS (Gr. deinos, terrible or wonderful, and ornis, a bird), a genus of large birds of the tribe Brempennes (q. v.), of which no species is now known to exist, but of which the bones have been found in New Zealand, in the most recent deposits, in the sand of the sea-shore, in swamps, in the soil of forests, in river-beds, and in caves; and concerning which, along with other large birds nearly allied to them (Palapteryx and Aptornis), traditions are still current among the natives, rendering it probable that they continued to inhabit New Zealand, if not to the 18th, at least to the 17th century. The name by which these birds are known in the traditions of New Zealand is Moa. They are said to have been decked in gaudy plumage, for the sake of which they were objects of pursuit, as well as for their flesh, which was much esteemed. They are also described as having been stupid, fat, and indolent birds, incapable of flying, living in forests and mountain-fastnesses, and feeding on vegetable food. With all this, the inferences deduced from their bones by comparative anatomists perfectly agree. These bones are not properly fossil or mineralized, but retain great part of their animal matter. It is even thought not impossible that some of the smaller species of D. may yet be found alive; of the larger ones, this can no longer be hoped. And these much exceeded in size any existing bird, some of the bones being at least twice the size of those of the ostrich; but the body seems to have been more bulky in proportion, and to have more resembled that of the dodo, although the legs were long, and D. giganteus must have stood at least ten feet and a half in height. The framework of the leg is the most massive of any in the class of birds, and the bones are remarkable for the solidity of their structure. The toe-bones of D- elephantopes almost rival those of the elephant.

The number of bones of D. which have been found is great; several species have been distinguished, and an almost complete restoration of skeleton has been effected. The first bone ever seen by a naturalist—a bone of the leg—was brought under the notice of Professor Owen in 1839; and it is worthy of being borne in mind, that from that one bone he assigned to the D. its true place in the system of nature, and pointed out some of the most important characters which are now most fully proved to have belonged to it.

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. England has the honor of first making this a distinct subject of public attention by the formation of societies for its prevention, and by legislative enactments making it punishable. The English Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, founded in 1824, has become very influential and active; the Scottish Society, founded in 1839, differs slightly in its mode of prosecution. In the United States, above thirty branches of a similar organization were founded between 1866 and 1881; and the movement has extended into France and Germany.

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO (in LAW). This is an offence against criminal law, and has frequently formed the subject of legislation, the chief act of parliament being the 12 and 13 Vict. c. 92 (passed in 1849). By this statute it is provided, that if any person shall cruelly beat, ill-treat, over-drive, abuse, or torture any horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, cat, or any other domestic animal, he shall forfeit a sum not exceeding £5 for every such offence, recoverable before a justice of the peace in a summary way; and if by any such misconduct he shall injure the animal, or person or property, a further sum not exceeding £10 to the owner or person injured. The acts also inflict penalties in thecase of conveying cattle by railway without water-supply, &c., causing unnecessary pain or suffering; in the case of bull-baiting, cock-fighting, and the like; and regulates the business of slaughtering horses and cattle not intended for butcher-meat.

The act of 1839 forbids the use of carts, drawn by dogs. The 39 and 40 Vict. c. 77 (1876) limits vivisection, and forbids painful experiments on animals, unless the operator is licensed by the Home Secretary. The object must be the discovery of knowledge or the prolonging of life; and the animal must be rendered insensible during the operation. The penalty is £50 for the first offence, £100 for the second. The Wild-Birds Protection Act (1880) provides a close time for birds between March and August.

Formerly, in Scotland, this offence was punishable at common law—that is, according to the Scottish legal principle, common law as distinguished from statute law. An act of parliament, however, passed in the year 1850, put the law on this subject in Scotland on the same footing as it is in England. See ANIMALS, Cruelty to, in AM. SUPP.

GEORGE III., son of Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales, succeeded his grandfather, George II. He was born on the 4th June 1738, and died at Windsor Castle, on the 29th January 1820, in the 60th year of his reign, which was eventful as well as long. On 8th September 1761, he married the Princess Charlotte Sophia, daughter of Charles Duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and was by her the father of fifteen children. His intellect was not of the strongest, but, like his two predecessors, he had firmness of purpose, and, in addition, a conscientiousness and sense of decorum unknown to them, while both friends and enemies could rely upon him—the one for favors, and the other for the reverse. His mind gave way several times—in 1764, in 1788, in 1801, in 1804; and in 1810, when the British were fighting behind the lines of Torres Vedras, his final insanity supervened. He had an abundance of cares, like most sovereigns. The Letters of Junius and the invectives of Wilkes annoyed him; so did the proposals to emancipate the Roman Catholics and the terrible French Revolution of 1789. His life was attempted by the maniacs Margaret Nicolson and a man named Hattield. The marriages of two of his brothers with the widows of subjects displeased him, and led to the passing of the Royal Marriage Bill, 12 Geo. III. c. 11, prohibiting the members of the royal family from contracting marriage without the consent of the king, if under twenty-five years of age, and the consent of parliament if above that age; and afterwards the undoubted debts and dissipation of his eldest son, who became George IV., his hardly doubtful marriage with Mrs. Fitzherbert, the Roman Catholic widow of two husbands, and the scandals of his public marriage with his cousin, Caroline of Brunswick, must have led the ‘ good old king’ to reflect that not even a ‘ marriage-bill’ could cure all the domestic miseries of monarchs. Nor were matters of national excitement and magnitude a wanting.

A bill, imposing certain stamp-duties upon the American colonies, which had been resolved to be inexpedient in 1764, was passed in March 1765, and repealed in 1766 by the Marquis of Rockingham’s ministry; and in 1767 the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Townshend, brought forward a plan for the taxation of these colonies, which led to their revolt, the colonists objecting to be taxed by a parliament in which they were not represented. In 1770, Lord North, the premier, brought in a bill for the repeal of all the recently imposed American duties, except the duty on tea, which was retained, to assert the English right to impose taxes on these colonies. In December 1773, ‘ Boston harbor is black with unexpected tea,’ cargoes of it being wantonly destroyed by the colonists ; and on 19th April 1775, hostilities commenced with the undecisive battle of Lexington, which on the 16th June was followed by that of Bunker’s Hill, which was a victory to the colonists, and helped to give them boldness to renounce the dominion of Great Britain, and publish the declaration of independence on the 4th July 1776. George Washington, a

colonel of militia, who had been appointed general of the insurgent colonists, took possession of Boston in that year, having compelled General Howe and the British troops to retire, and next year he gained an important advantage by the capture of Burgoyne’s army of 10,000 fine troops, British and German. The French, Spanish, and Dutch all threw their weight into the American scale, and the chequered and disastrous struggle ended in America by the surrender of Lord Cornwallis, with a British army of 6000, to Washington and the Marquis de la Fayette. The French suffered at sea by the gallantry of the British under Byron, Hood, and Rodney, this last having, in 1782, in the West Indies, obtained over them a naval victory by the hitherto untried method of breaking the enemy’s line. In that year, also, General Elliott repulsed the grand attack of the French and Spaniards, and put an end to their chances of success in the obdurate siege of Gibraltar. At Versailles, on 3d September 1783, a peace was concluded with France and Spain, in which the independence of the American states was recognized, not a little to the satisfaction of many of the English at home, who, besides being tired of the struggle, had throughout the contest sympathized with the American colonists, whose cause, originally good, had had its merits kept before the public mind by the eloquence of Chatham, Fox, and Burke, three of the greatest orators of all time.

Meanwhile, the British rule in India was consolidated, and this was effected in no insignificant degree under the governor-generalship of Warren Hastings, a most able but somewhat unscrupulous man. His trial for misrule and oppression, famous for the eloquent accusations of Burke and Sheridan, began in 1786, and was protracted for nine years. Wars with Hyder Ali and his :son Tippoo Saib were ended by the storming of Seringapatam in 1799.

The after-swell of the French revolution broke over all the continent of Europe in wave after wave of war. The aversion of Britain to the insane democracy of France was not concealed, and in 1793, a few days after the execution of their king, the French declared war against Britain. In the confused warfare that followed, the English, under Lord Howe, in 1794, defeated the French fleet in the channel; under Sir John Jervis they defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape St. Vincent in 1797; and also in that year, under Lord Duncan, they defeated the Dutch off Camperdown: and in 1798 Nelson was victorious on the Nile over the French fleet that had conveyed Napoleon Bonaparte and his troops to Egypt. In 1801, he bombarded Copenhagen, and partially destroyed the Danish fleet; and the forces under Sir Ralph Abercromby—who was mortally wounded—gained the victory of Alexandria over the troops which Napoleon had left in Egypt to menace the power of Britain in the East. On the 25th of March, 1802, the treaty of peace of Amiens was signed, but within a year. hostilities were renewed. In 1803, Hanover was occupied by the French. On October 21, 1805, Nelson lost his life, and gained his greatest victory of Trafalgar over the French and Spanish fleets. Napoleon’s splendid victory of Austerlitz over the Austrians and Russians December 1805, was survived only a few weeks by the great statesman Pitt, whose breaking heart and constitution could not sustain the shock of this last disappointment. Napoleon’s Berlin decree of 1806, and his Milan decree of 1807, declaring the British dominions in a state of blockade on purpose to destroy British commerce, was not supported by a sufficient navy to carry them into execution by capturing vessels trading with Britain; but they did no inconsiderable damage. In 1808, Sir Arthur Wellesley landed in Portugal, and defeated the French at Vimieira; but the advantage of this victory was thrown away in the Convention of Cintra. The retreat four months after, to Corunna of the English army under Sir John Moore, from overwhelming odds and its safe embarkation in January 1809, after the repulse of Marshal Soult, has secured a reputation for the able and distinguished general who fell there hardly inferior to that of those who died in the moment of victory. In April of that year, Sir Arthur Wellesley returned to the command in the Peninsula, and after conquering at Talavera on the 8th of July, wearing out the powers of the assailing French behind the lines of Torres Vedras during the last months of 1810, and conquering at Fuentes de Onoro in 1811, at Salamanca in 1812, at Vittoria in 1813 (as Lord Wellington), and in other battles and sieges, he drove the French out of the peninsula. The struggle was terminated on the eventful field of Waterloo (q. v.), 18th June 1815.

On the 1st of January 1801, Ireland was united to Great Britain and its separate legislation was abolished. During this reign many Scotchmen had forced their way to the first places in the state; all the Jacobite feelings had died out; and the Union had become not a legislative one merely, but a union of Society, literature, thought, and enterprise.

The most original and vigorous thought of this period found its expression in poetry, and among its great poets, the most noteworthy are Byron, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Walter Scott, the last of whom is also at the head of all the writers of prose-fiction. In spite of the depressing effects of war, commerce greatly increased during the 60 years of this reign; and the revenue, which at the beginning of it was under nine millions, had, during the years of the French war, been increased more than sevenfold, thus showing, though by an undesirable method, the vast increase of the resources of the country. Chemistry and the steam-engine were beginning to alter the face of society. Among legislative reforms, the most conspicuous was the abolition of the punishment of death for minor crimes, and generally the statute-book, which had greatly increased, became more and more favorable to individual liberty.

DINOTHE’RIUM (Gr. terrible or wonderful beast), a remarkable extinct animal, the cranial bones of which are found in the Miocene formations of Germany, France, &c. The animal was provided, like the elephant and the walrus, with a pair of long tusks; but these projected from the end of the lower jaw, which is deflected downwards at a right angle to the body of the jaw. In addition to the two tusks, there were five double-ridged grinders on each side of both jaws. The nasal cavity is large, apparently supplying attachment for a trunk, as in the elephant. No body or limb bones have yet been found so associated with those of the skull, as to show that they belonged to the same animal. Hence the true position of the D. has not been satisfactorily determined. Cuvier and Kaup have referred it to the neighborhood of the tapir, supposing it to have been an inhabitant of large lakes. We give a fig. of Kaup’s restoration. De Blainville, on the other hand, makes it a herbivorous cetacean, like the manatee.

GOUT (Fr. goutte, from Lat. gutta, a drop), a medieval term of uncertain date, derived from the humoral pathology (see rheumatism), indicating a well-known form of disease, which occurs for the most part in persons of more or less luxurious habits, and past the middle period of life. The acute attack of gout begins most commonly by a painful swelling of the ball of the great toe or of the instep, sometimes of the ankle or knee; much more rarely, it attacks both lower limbs at once; and more rarely still, it seizes first upon some other part of the body, the foot being either not attacked at all, or becoming involved at a later period. In the great majority of cases, the foot is not only the first part attacked, but the principal seat of the disease throughout; according to Scudamore, indeed, this is the order of events in not much less than four-fifths of the cases.

In exceptional instances, the ankle, knee, hand, elbow, &c., are attacked at first; now and then, the disease smoulders in the system in the form of disorders of the digestive or nervous functions, or oppression of the circulation for some considerable time before it takes the form of ‘ regular ‘ gout—that is, of an acute attack, or fit, of gout in the foot. The name podagra (Gr. pod, foot, and agra, seizure) indicates the leading character of the disease as apprehended by all antiquity; and the very numerous references to the disorder so called, not only in the medical writings of Hippocrates, Galen, Aretæns, Cælius, Aurelianus, and the later Greek physicians, but in such purely literary works as those of Lucian, Seneca, Ovid, and Pliny, show not only the frequency, but the notoriety of the disease. The allusions, indeed, are of a kind which give ample proof that the essential characters of gout have not been changed by the lapse of centuries; it is caricatured by Lucian in his burlesque of Tragopodagra in language quite applicable to the disease as now observed; while the connection of it with the advance of luxury in Rome is recognized by Seneca (Epist. 95) in the remark that in his day even the women had become goutj”, thus setting at naught the authority of physicians, which had asserted the little liability of women to gout. Pliny likewise (book 26, chap. 10) remarks upon the increase of gout, even within his own time, not to go back to that of their fathers and grandfathers; he is of opinion, further, that the disease must have been imported; for if it had been native in Italy, it would surely have had a Latin name. Ovid and Lucian represent gout as mostly incurable by medicine; from this view of it, Pliny dissents. The list of quack remedies given by Lucian is one of the most curious relics of antiquity.

In the present day, gout is observed to prevail wherever there is an upper class having abundant means of self-indulgence, and living without regard to the primeval law of humanity, ‘ in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.’ The directness, however, with which gout can be traced, in particular cases, to its predisposing causes is very various; and in many instances, a well-marked hereditary tendency to the disease may be observed, which even a very active and temperate life can scarcely overcome; while, on the other hand, the most gross forms of excess may be practised for a whole lifetime without incurring the gouty penalty. It is difficult to explain these variations; but they leave unaffected the general principle, that gout is a disease especially of the wealthy, and most of all of those who have little physical exertion, and give great scope to the bodily appetites. The prevention and cure, accordingly, have been at all times recognized as being mainly founded on temperance, combined with the cultivation of active and regular habits as to exercise. Many amusing stories are told having this moral, and showing how gout has been cured by the opportune occurrence of calamities which have created the necessity for labor, and removed the means of self-indulgence. With a few special exceptions, indeed, it may be said that the laboring class, and especially those that labor in the open air, are almost, if not altogether free from this disease. Those, again, that labor much with the mind, not being subject either to great privations, or to the restraint of unusually abstemious habits of life, are remarkably subject to gout; the more so if their bodily and mental constitution has been originally robust, and fitted by nature for a degree of activity which the artificial necessities of fashion or of occupation have kept within too narrow limits. Hence, the well-known saying of Sydenham, that gout is almost the only disease of which it can be said that it ‘ destroys more rich men than poor, more wise men than simple.’ And in this manner accordingly (he adds), there have lived and died ‘great kings, princes, generals, admirals, philosophers, and others like these not a few.

Gout is, therefore, the counterpoise in the scales of fortune to many worldly advantages; the poor and needy have it not, but suffer from their own peculiar calamities; the favorites of fortune are exempt from many privations, but this very exemption paves the way for the gout; whereby even in this world Dives suffers as well as Lazarus, and sometimes, it may be, learns the lesson of his suffering. Such is the sense, though not the exact words, in which, nearly two hundred years ago, Sydenham expressed the convictions of a lifetime on this subject.

Sydenham’s treatise on gout is interesting not only as containing the well-considered views of a master in the medical art, but also as the faithful description of the disease by one of the victims of it. His account of the paroxysm of regular gout may be given here with some abbreviation. After some weeks of previous indigestion, attended with flatulent swelling and a feeling of weight, rising to a climax in spasms of the thighs, the patient goes to bed free from pain, and having had rather an unnaturally strong appetite the day before. In the middle of the night, he is awakened by a pain in the great toe, or sometimes in the heel, the ankle, or the calf of the leg. The pain resembles that of a dislocated bone, and is accompanied by a sense as if water not perfectly cold were poured over the affected limb; to this succeeds chilliness, with shivering, and a trace of feverishness, these last symptoms diminishing: as the pain increases. From hour to hour, until the next evening, the patient suffers every variety of torture in every separate joint of the affected limb; the pain being of a tearing, or crushing, or gnawing character, the tenderness such that even the weight of the bed-clothes, or the shaking of the room from a person’s walking about in it, is unbearable. The next night is one of tossing and turning, the uneasy limb being constantly moved about to find a better position; till towards morning the victim feels sudden relief, and falls over into a sleep, from which lie wakes refreshed, to find the limb swollen; the vinous distention usually present in the early stage having been succeeded by a more general form of swelling, often with itching between the toes, and a peeling-off of the cuticle. This individual attack may be repeated many times, in the course of what is termed ‘a lit of the gout,’ which commonly extends over a period of weeks, or even months, before the patient is completely relieved; or the attacks may occur in both limbs, or in several other parts of the body in succession, the real termination of the ‘fit’ being at last indicated by an apparently complete restoration of health, and even, in some cases, by a period of improved condition and capacity for exertion, as compared with the state of the patient before the attack.

Such are the principal features of the ‘ regular gout.’ In this form, it might almost be called a local disease; although the connection of the attacks with deranged digestion, or with a variety of other minor ailments too complex to be described here, and the obvious relief obtained through the ‘ fit’ from the symptoms of constitutional suffering, point to a cause of the disease operating over n larger range of functions than those included in the ordinary local manifestations at this period. Regular gout, accordingly, forms only part of a nosological picture, in which the so-called irregular, atonic, metastatic, or retrocedent forms have to be included before it can be said to be at all complete. These, indeed, form almost all the darker shadows of the picture; for regular gout, though a very painful disorder, can hardly be said to be dangerous to life, or even to the limb affected, at least until after many attacks.

It is the tendency, however, of gout, when recurring often, to full into irregular forms, and herein lies its danger. One source of local aggravation is, indeed, soon apparent, and it leads rapidly to other evils. The joints which have been repeatedly the seat of the regular paroxysm, become more or less permanently, crippled and distorted. A white, friable, chalk-like material is gradually deposited around the cartilage and ligaments, and sometimes in the cellular tissue and under the skin. Sometimes this material is discharged externally by ulceration, and then usually with relief. At other times, it accumulates into irregular masses, or ‘ nodosities,’ which entirely destroy, or at least greatly impair, the movement of the limb. The patient is laid up more or less permanently in his arm-chair; and exercise, the great natural specific remedy of the gouty, is denied by the very conditions of the diseased state itself.

Then follow aggravations of all the constitutional sufferings; the more so, perhaps, in proportion as the local attacks in the foot become obscurely marked. Indigestion continues, or becomes constant, assuming the form chiefly of acidity after meals; the liver becomes tumid, the abdomen corpulent, the bowels disposed to costiveness; the kidney discharges a vitiated secretion, and not (infrequently there is a tendency to gravel and Calculus (q. v.); the heart is affected with palpitations, or fainting-fits occur, sometimes with spasmodic attacks of pain; the arteries become the seat of calcareous deposits, and the veins are varicose in the limbs and in the neighborhood of the lower bowel (see piles); the temper is singularly irritable, and often morose; then, sooner or later, the appetite fails, or is only kept up by very stimulating and unwholesome diet, with an excess of wine or of alcoholic liquors; in the end the body emaciates, the energy of all the functions becomes enfeebled, and the patient falls a prey to diarrhœa, or to some slight attack of incidental disease. Sometimes the end is sudden, as by apoplexy or structural disease of the heart; sometimes, on the other hand, it occurs in the midst of one of those violent spasms which have popularly acquired the name of ‘ gout in the stomach;’ the true character of these attacks, however, being by no means well understood.

The sketch here given of the leading external phenomena of gout is very incomplete, as every popular description, to be at all intelligible, must necessarily be. But the reader will not fail to see in it the type of a disease occurring under a number of remarkably varied forms, and lurking in the constitution, at times, under the most strangely anomalous disguises, or even under the general aspect of robust or rude health. It has been an object, accordingly, with physicians to trace out the gouty predisposition under the name of a habit of body, or diathesis, cognizable previously to any of the local manifestations. At this point, however, the ideas of authority usually become hazy, and their descriptions correspondingly ill defined or contradictory. The anomalous forms of the disease itself are also exceedingly difficult to describe accurately, and must on this account be left out of the present summary of the characters of the more usual aspects of gout, as it presents itself to physician and patient. The causes of the disease have been sufficiently indicated above.

One fact in regard to gout has relation to its intimate chemical and structural pathology, not less than to its outward characters; and forms, in fact, the pathological connection of a great number of its phenomena. The concretions found in the joints in all cases of well-marked and highly developed gout have nearly a uniform composition, into which the urate of soda (see uric acid) enters as a considerable proportion. Uric acid has long been known as one of the constant organic elements of the urine, through which it seems to be habitually expelled from the system. In certain circumstances, uric acid is deposited also in the form of

urinary gravel or Calculus (q. v.); and it is this particular kind of gravel to which the gouty are especially subject, as we have indicated above. A conjunction of facts so striking as these could not but arrest the attention of pathologists; and it is long since Sir Henry Holland and others threw out the hypothesis, that uric acid was to be regarded as the very materies morbi of gout, of which ancients and moderns had been so long in search. It would be out of place to enter on the discussion of this subject here; but it must be indicated as a fact of recent discovery, that uric acid in a certain excess has been shown by Dr. Garrod to be characteristic of the blood of the gouty, although a minute amount of this substance is probably present even in perfect health. The most recent speculations, accordingly, tend to connect the gouty predisposition either with an excessive formation, or a checked excretion, of this important nitrogenous organic acid, the product, as physiology teaches, of the vital disintegration of the flesh and of the food, after these have subserved the daily wants of the system. At this point, the inquiry rests for the present.

The cure of gout, in the highest sense of the word, demands the careful consideration of all its predisposing causes in the individual, and the strict regulation of the whole life and habits accordingly, from the earliest possible period. It is the difficulty of accomplishing this which makes gout a disease proverbially intractable; for the regular attacks of the disease seldom occur till pretty late in life, long after the habits have been fully formed which are most adverse to the cure. Rigid temperance in eating and drinking, with daily exercise proportionate to the strength and condition of the individual, in reality constitute the only radical cure of gout, the lesson of ages of experience as read to the gouty by the light of science. But the lesson is not learned, or only learned when too late. It should never be forgotten that a man of gouty family, or individually much exposed to the causes of the disease, can only hope to escape it in Ids old age by habits of life formed at an early period, and by a careful avoidance of most of the common dissipations of youth. That the disease may be warded off in this way, there is ample evidence; and it is not less certain that there is no other way of living secure from gout. The treatment of the fit, in so far as it does not resolve itself into the celebrated prescription of ‘patience and flannel,’ must be a subject of medical prescription. The well-known virtues of Colchicum (q. v.) are perhaps somewhat overrated by the public; and its dangers are not legs striking than its virtues. It is certain, however, that in cautious medical hands colchicum is a remedy of great value in the gouty paroxysm; and of equal value perhaps are certain natural mineral waters, as those of Vichy and Carlsbad. Alkalies and their salts, especially potash and lithia waters, as prepared artificially, with minute doses of iodine and bromine, have likewise been much recommended for the cure of gouty deposits. For the distinctions of gout and rheumatism, and the presumed relation between them in some cases, see rheumatism.