Vickipedia

LEGION OF HONOR, an order of merit instituted under the French Republic in 1802 by the First Consul, as a recompense for military and civil services. It was ostensibly founded for the protection of republican principles and the laws of equality, and for the abolition of differences of rank in society, every social grade being equally eligible; but its real aim doubtless was, by popularizing the idea of personal distinction, to pave the way for the establishment of the Empire and of the more exclusive titles of nobility that were to accompany it. The proposal for its institution was at first violently opposed by the legislative body and the tribunate, on democratic grounds, and carried eventually by a narrow majority.

The order originally comprised three classes�Grand Officers, Commanders, and Legionaries. The class of Grand Officers was, on the coronation of Napoleon I., divided into Knights of the Grand Eagle (the highest class), and Grand Officers. On the restoration of the Bourbons, the Legion was retained, but remodelled so as to lose much of its original character, The eagle was called a cross, and the effigy of Henry IV- replaced that of Napoleon. The Knights of the Grand Eagle became Grand Crosses, the Legionaries were transformed into Knights, and the numerous educational institutions, founded by Napoleon for the children and relatives of the members of the order, were much reduced in scale. In 1837, a new military class called Officers was admitted. Under the Presidentship of Louis Napoleon, part of the property of Louis Philippe, which had been restored to the state, was set apart as an. endowment for the Legion, and new regulations were made regarding the pensions of the different classes. The original form of decoration was reintroduced, which under the second Empire was somewhat modified. As worn then, it consisted of a cross of ten points of white enamel edged with gold ; the points connected with a wreath of laurel proper, and in the center, within an azure circle charged with the words ‘ Napoleon III., Empereur des Francais,’ was a head of the emperor. The cross is ensigned by the imperial crown of France, and worn attached to a red ribbon. The Grand Officers also wore on the right breast a silver star charged with the imperial eagle. The same star was worn on the left breast by the Knights Grand Cross, and their cross was attached to a broad red ribbon which passes over the right shoulder.

The vast numbers of this order, and the insignificance of many of the persons on whom it has been conferred, have detracted much from its value. The number of members in 1872 was 69,179; but the law passed in that year, that only one new member should be added for every two vacancies, reduced the membership in the next five years (1877) to 59,208. The revenue of the College of the Legion has been augmented by the addition of property belonging to Louis Philippe. Out of this fund pensions are paid to those members of the order who have served in the army or navy; the civilian members receive no pension. These pensions amounted in 1877 to the sum of �454,554. By the existing statutes, candidates in time of peace must have served in some military or civil capacity for twenty years; exploits in the field or severe wounds constitute a claim in time of war. Two distributions take place in the year. The nomination of military persons takes place on parade, and of civil in the courts of justice. No ignoble punishment can be inflicted on a member of the order so long as he belongs to it. To rise to a superior rank, it is indispensable, at least for natives of France, to have passed through the inferior grades.

FINA’NCE, a French word incorporated with our language, means the art of managing money matters, the person who professes this art being called a financier. Finance, in the plural, is often used for money itself, but still with a reference to the purpose to which it is to be applied, as where the finances of a country are said to have improved or fallen off�that is to say, have become abundant or scanty according to the expenditure of the country. Sometimes the word is applied to private wealth, but it is properly applicable to public funds. We use it in this country rather in a political and economic sense than officially, but in France, there have been, from time to time, comptrollers-general of finance, councils of finance, bureaus of finance, &c. Many statesmen have been spoken of as great financiers, from the talent which they have shown for adjusting national revenue and expenditure, as Colbert, Turgot, and Necker in France, and Go-dolphin and Peel in Britain. As a branch of statesmanship, finance is intimately connected with other branches. In questions of national policy�such as, whether a state can go to war or not �the financier is the person who is expected to count the cost, and say how the necessary funds are to be obtained. In the question, whether an unpopular or oppressive tax is to be abolished, the financier is an authority on the question, whether the government can do without it. Hence, there is a special connection between finance and taxation, which has become closer and stronger since the progress of political economy has shown that the taxes which are the most productive, and even the most easily collected, are not always the best, looking at the gain or loss of a nation, in the long-run. Turgot said that finance was the art of plucking the fowl without making it cry. On this notion, the principle of indirect taxation achieved its popularity. For instance, customs duties seem to fall on no one. The importer and the retailer add them to the price of the article, and the ultimate purchaser only knows that the article is dear without experiencing the sense of hardship felt by one who pays out money directly in the shape of a tax. But many indirect taxes have, on the other hand, been found to affect the trade and the wealth of communities to an extent which has made them very deleterious in comparison with direct taxes. See further on matters connected with finance the heads CUSTOMS; DEBT, NATIONAL; CORN LAWS; EXCISE; FREE TRADE; TAXATION; REVENUE.

FILLMORE, MILLARD, an American statesman, ex-president of the United States, was born on 7th January 1800, at Summer Hill, in the state of New York. Born of English parents, in rather straitened circumstances, all the education he received was the very imperfect instruction furnished by the village school.

At the age of fifteen he was sent to the county of Livingston, there to learn the drapery trade, and soon afterwards was bound apprentice to a wool-carder in his native village.

During the four years he labored at this occupation, he used every means at his disposal to cultivate his mind, devoting his evenings to reading and study. In his nineteenth year he made the acquaintance of a lawyer named Wood, who discovering in the young man talents worthy of a loftier sphere, took an interest in him, and offered him a situation in his office, at the same time supplying him with funds for the prosecution of his studies foe the legal profession. The attention bestowed upon him by his benefactor was not thrown away. He entered with ardor upon the course marked out for him, and in order that he might not be too great a burden upon his friend, devoted a part of his time to conducting a school. He removed to Buffalo in 1821 in order to complete his studies, and in 1823 was admitted a member of the bar. A brilliant career was thus opened up for him, and he delayed not to pursue it. He gradually acquired both means and reputation. In 1829, he began his political career, being in that year chosen as a representative of the county of Erie in the Legislature of New York, where he entered the ranks of the Whig party, at that time in opposition. Here his probity and modesty soon gained him universal esteem. He was mainly instrumental in procuring the abolition of imprisonment for debt in the state of New York. In 1832, F. was elected a member of Congress, and such were the statesman-like qualities displayed by him, that lie was several times re-elected; but in 1844 he resumed his profession of advocate. In 1847, however, he again returned to public life, being elected by a large majority to the post of comptroller of New York; and in the following year he was made vice-president of the United States. The unexpected death of General Taylor in July 1850, leaving the office of president vacant, F. was raised to that high office, which he held till 1853. His presidency was marked by the passing of some very salutary measures, notwithstanding that his party were in the minority. He promoted as far as he could the progress of exploration and discovery, at home and abroad. In 1855, F. visited Europe, and on his return in 1856, he was again nominated for the presidency, but was not returned. F. took no active part in the civil war; though nominally he sided with the Union. After the expiry of his term of office, be retired to Buffalo, where he died in 1874.

A’ME’N, a Hebrew word of asservation, is equivalent to ‘Yea,’ ‘ Truly,’ and has been commonly adopted in the forms of Christian worship. In Jewish synagogues, the A. is pronounced by tilt congregation at the conclusion of the benediction given at parting. Among the early Christians, the prayer offered by the presbyter was concluded by the word A., uttered by the congregation, Mention is made of the practice in the 1st Epistle to the Corinthians (xiv. 16). Justin Martyr is the earliest of the fathers who alludes to the use of the response. ‘In speaking of the sacrament he says that, at the close of the benediction and prayer, all the assembly respond “A.” According to Tertullian, none but to faithful were permitted to join in the response.’ A somewhat noisy and irreverent practice prevailed in the celebration of the Lord’s Supper until the 6th c., after which it was discontinued. ‘Upon the reception both of the bread and of the wine, each person uttered a loud ” A.; ” and at the close of the consecration by the priest, all joined in shouting a loud ” A.” ‘ The same custom was observed at baptism, where the sponsors and witnesses responded vehemently. In the Greek Church, the A. was pronounced after the name of each person of the Trinity; and at the close of the baptismal formula, the people responded. At the conclusion Of prayer, it signifies (according to the English Church Catechism) So be it; after the repetition of the Creed, So is it.

A’MBULANCE, a military term which is somewhat differently applied in different countries. In France, an A. is a portable hospital, one of which is attached to every division of an army in the field, and provided with all the requisites for the medical succor of sick or wounded troops. Such an A. is stationed at some spot removed from immediate danger; and soldiers are sedulously employed after a battle in seeking out those who have fallen, and conveying them to the A. Baron Larrey, during the great wars of the First Napoleon, brought this department of medical business to a high degree of efficiency, and set an example to the rest of Europe. When England engaged in war with Russia in 1854, the A. arrangements, like many others relating to the army, were in a very imperfect state. In the English army, A., strictly speaking, means a field hospital with all its wagons, litters, tents, cooking canteen, &c-; but sometimes the name is applied to a four-wheeled wagon or a two-wheeled cart fitted up for the reception of wounded men. When Lord Raglan was about to be sent out with the army, Dr. Guthrie, President of the College of Surgeons, devised a new form of A. cart; while Dr. Andrew Smith, Director-general of the Army and Ordnance Medical Department, invented a new A. wagon.

Annexed is a figure of Dr. Guthrie’s A. cart. The badly wounded were laid on it at full length, while those slightly hurt sat in front and rear, and on the sides. A stretcher is slung from the top for the accommodation of the former. The back-board is let down for cases requiring amputation. The hospital chests are lashed underneath. Many of Smith’s A. wagons and of Guthrie’s A. carts were at once made and sent out to the East; but they were not at the proper place when most wanted. After the battle of the Alma, the English were almost entirely destitute of means for conveying their wounded down to the beach; but the French had for this purpose a large number of camlets, suggested to them by their experience in Algeria. Each of these consists of two easy-chairs, slung in panniers across the back of a mule; and it is accordingly available along tracks where no wheel-carriage could pass. These cacolets have since been adopted in the English army, as well as improved, hand-litters, wheeled-litters or barrows, and ambulance wagons on a more modern model than those of Smith and Guthrie, but having the same general character. The American War, the wars of 1866 and 1870, and above all, the growth of volunteer aid societies under the influence of the Geneva Convention of 1866 (which gave to the wounded and their attendants the privileges of neutrality), have largely developed the ambulance equipments of every European army. Every international exhibition now contains an immense number of designs for the safe transport of the wounded. The most remarkable step taken in this direction has been the organization of railway ambulances. Trains of carriages either built for the purpose, or adapted from the ordinary rolling stock, can now be fitted up as moving hospitals, with their staff of surgeons and attendants; and by means of these railway ambulances the wounded can be safely and rapidly removed from the encumbered field hospitals to the permanent hospitals of the great cities of their own country. All the fittings for thus adapting railway trains to hospital purposes are now kept permanently m store in many of the countries of the continent.

ARTILLERY sometimes means large cannon or ordnance of every kind; sometimes it includes the shot and shell; sometimes it applies to the soldiers who manage the cannon. In the present work, the large pieces of ordnance, as a class, are described under cannon; specialties are noticed at CARRONADE, HOWITZER, GUN, MORTAR, &c.; and in some cases under the names of the inventors, as ARMSTRONG GUN, LANCASTER GUN, &c. See also FIREARMS, RIFLED ARMS, GUNNERY, SHELLS, SHOT. It may, however, be well here to explain that the term Equipment of A. is applied to a combination of men, material, and horses, suitable for coast-defences, sieges, or the arming of fortified posts. There are several kinds of equipments of light A., under the names of horse, field, rocket, mountain, and reserve; and others of heavy A., for the attack and defence of coasts and fortified places. These various equipments are generally divided into smaller collections called Batteries (q. v.), for more easy control and man�uvring. Paris of A. is a collective name given to the whole of the guns, carriages, ammunition, and other appurtenances essential to the working of field or siege A.

Artillery Corps.�Before the invention of gunpowder, the larger projectile weapons, sometimes called engines of war, sometimes artillery, were worked by rough soldiers, who needed no particular apprenticeship to that art. When, however, large balls of iron came to be propelled by the irresistible force of gunpowder, a great revolution gradually took place, though garrison-guns and siege-guns were improved more rapidly than field-guns. Nevertheless, field-guns changed the whole aspect of military tactics; for it became necessary that an army should form in order of battle at a much greater distance from the enemy than in older times. And when the cannon were made more rapidly movable, so did tactics vary. Gradually, a body of men were set apart to study the force and action of gunpowder, the flight and range of projectiles, the weight and strength of cannon, and the man�uvring of heavy masses. The French were the first to make these researches; after them, the English; and still later, the Germans. During the Thirty Years’ War, an important step was taken in Germany�that of including the artillerymen, who were till then a sort of guild, as a component in the regular army. Gustavus Adolphus’ in Sweden, Frederick II. in Prussia and Napoleon I in France, all attached a very high degree of importance to the A. as an arm of the service. After the great wars in the beginning of the present century, nearly all the states of Europe formally recognized the A. as the third great branch of military service (next after the infantry and cavalry); indeed, in almost all present armies, it takes practically the first place. A. corps, or artillerymen, are divided into land-A. and marine-A. The land-A. is divided into field, coast, garrison, and siege A. The field-A. is sub-divided into horse and foot. There are also the special appellation of reserve, light and heavy A. In most European states, the artillerymen are divided into regiments, battalions, brigades, arid companies; but in Britain the whole form one enormous regiment, which is expanded or contracted according to the exigencies of the service. See below.

When military men speak of the field-A., they usually include cannon, carriages, horses, ammunition, and stores of every description, as well as the artillerymen. The distinction between heavy and light A. depends on the size of the cannon, and the weight of the shot and shell propelled from them. For obvious reasons the construction of very large field-guns is avoided. Military men are not quite agreed as to the precise figures; but there was in the time of Napoleon I. a general concurrence in opinion that a well-appointed field-force should have two or three A. guns to every 1000 infantry, and five or six horse A.-guns to every 1000 cavalry. The proportion is necessarily affected by the kind of country and the amount of available transport. During the Peninsular War, Wellington had seldom more than 1 gun to every 1000 soldiers; when he entered France, he had 3 to the 1000. Napoleon preferred 2 per thousand, with a larger supply of ammunition than had before been deemed necessary; and many foreign governments followed his example. Since the Franco-German war, it is held that there should be always with the army 3 guns per 1000 infantry.

The Royal Regiment of Artillery is the collective name for the whole of the A. belonging to the British army. Under Artillery Corps, the origin of similar bodies on the continent of Europe is briefly noticed. There was no regular regiment or corps of A. soldiers in the English army till the time of Queen Anne, when the present Royal Regiment was formed. Since that period, from some anomaly difficult to explain, all the additions have been made to the same regiment, instead of forming new regiments, to be combined into a division or corps. The regiment is now almost an army in itself; and to increase the anomaly, it comprises horse as well as foot. The foot-A., with medium guns, attend infantry in the battle-field; and with heavier guns, besiege and defend fortified places; while the horse-A., with lighter guns, accompany the cavalry. The mounted artillerymen were organized long after those who man�uvre on foot. Though both corps form one regiment, they have distinct designations�the Royal A., and the Royal Horse-A. Besides these two corps, the regiment is considered to include the Master Gunners and the Coast Brigade.

The regiment has varied from 18,000 to 36,000 strong (including those placed upon the East India establishment), during the last 20 years. Formerly, the foot were divided into battalions, and the horse into troops. Each company, with its quota of guns and stores, constituted a field-battery; and each troop, with its quota, constituted a horse-battery. The terms ‘ company’ and ‘ troop’ are now altogether abandoned as being properly applicable to infantry and cavalry, and both foot and horse are divided into brigades and batteries. Under the old organization, there was no major among the working officers, the designations being captain, second-captain, and lieutenants. The grades now are major, captain, and three lieutenants per battery. A battalion in former times usually comprised eight companies. When the number of the regiment was 18,000,’it comprised 119 companies and troops, averaging somewhat over 150 men each; at other times, the companies varied from 130 to 200 men each. At present, a brigade usually comprises 8 batteries of horse, or 10 of field, or 7 of garrison A. A horse-battery has 5 officers and 151 men; a field-battery (at home), 5 officers and 152 men; and a garrison-battery, 4 officers and from 100 to 150 men, according to the guns of position in its charge. The brigades of foot-A. are designated by ordinal numbers; the brigades of horse-A. are designated by letters, from A to F (omitting E). In the old nomenclature, the companies and battalions of foot-A. had numbers�i.e., 6th company, 12th battalion; and the troops of horse-A. were designated by letters.

The following table, from the Army Estimates of 1832�1883, shows the numbers of the force:

Of this number of men 12,065 are placed at the disposal of the East Indies, to be paid for out of Indian revenues. A general order was issued in April, 1882, giving details of the new organization of the Royal A. The former divisions of this regiment which is the largest in the world, numbering some 21,000 men) were 3 brigades of horse, 6 of field, and 5 of garrison A. The new organization provides for 2 horse brigades, 4 field brigades, and 11 divisions of garrison A., in each of which the first brigade consists of regulars, while the Militia Artillery regiments in each district are formed into the junior brigades of their divisions, to each of which a territorial designation is given. The first, or Northern Division, lias its headquarters at Newcastle, arid the Durham, Northumberland, and Yorkshire Artillery are attached to it. The second, or Lancashire Division, includes the Lancashire Militia, and is domiciled at Liverpool. The third, or Eastern Division, hails from Yarmouth, and its second and third brigade are furnished by the Norfolk and Suffolk Artillery Militia. The fourth is the Cinque Ports Division, stationed at Dover, and embracing the Kent and Sussex Militia. The fifth, or Woodwick Division, is formed entirely of regulars, and contains only our brigade. The Southern Division has its depot at Portsmouth, and takes in the Hants and Isle of Wight regiments; and the Western Division at Plymouth takes charge of the Devon and Cornwall regiments. A Scottish and a Welsh Division absorb the militia regiments at each of their districts, their headquarters being at Leith and Pembroke Dock respectively; and the North and South Irish Divisions, with depots at Carrickfergus and Cork, account for the militia of the sister isle. Recruiting for the Royal A. will be carried on by the infantry regimental district officers. See also the articles BATTERY, ARMY ORGANIZATION, and MARINES.

The Honorable Company of Artillery is the oldest volunteer corps in Britain. Four military bodies�the Artillery Company, the Sergeants-at-Arms, the Yeomen of the Guard, and the Gentlemen Pensioners, were established as far back as the time of the Tudors; they all still exist, but under greatly altered circumstances. In 1537, Henry VIII granted a patent creating a guild ultimately known as ‘ The Masters, Rulers, and Commonalty of the Fraternity or Guild of Artillery of Long-bows Cross-bows, and Handguns.’ Its members were empowered to keep arms and to exercise themselves in shooting. In 1638 the corporation of the city of London presented to the Company the plot of ground ever since called the Artillery Grounds, near Moorfields, as a field for military exercise. Royal princes frequently enrolled themselves as members of the Company, usually as ‘ captain-general.’

In 1719, George I. issued an order that all the commission and staff officers of the City Train-bands (a metropolitan militia) should become members of the Company, and exercise with the other members at all convenient times. The word ‘ artillery’ had heretofore been considered as applying to bows and arrows as well as to firearms; but the members of the Company, like oilier marksmen, had almost abandoned archery, without, however, making any change in their designation. The Company, like many other city guilds, has nearly outlived its original purpose, In 1780, when the ‘ Lord George Gordon riots’ afflicted the metropolis, the members of the Company effectually protected the Bank of England; in 1848 and again in 1859, the Company was on the alert to render good service if needed; but it lias never been engaged in actual ‘warfare with an enemy.

The Company consists of members elected by the ballot of a Court of Assistance, consisting of officers and others ex officio, and twenty-four annually elected. The members pay two guineas annual subscription, and �5 entrance fee, and supply themselves with uniforms, but not with arms and accoutrements. These payments, together with the rental received from some real property, constitute the fund out of which the expenses are defrayed. The members learn rifle-shooting as well as artillery practice; there are meetings twice a week at Moorfields; and every summer there are certain days of camping at some country place. The corps comprises six infantry companies, a troop of light cavalry, win furnish their own horses; and a battery of A., as well as a company of veterans. Until 1849, the members elected their own officers; but since that year the crown has appointed them. The lieu ten ant-colonel appoints the non-commissioned officers. The total number of all arms, is about 600. The regiment has of late years taken a. very good position in shooting at Wimbledon. Martini-Henry rifles were lately served out to them, instead of Sniders, a privilege not accorded to the same extent, as yet, other volunteer regiments. The Company is also the only volunteer body allowed to march through the streets with bayou fixed. Compare G. H. Raikes History of the Hon. Artillery Company, 2 vols.

Artillery Schools.�The first school for A. instruction was established by the Venetians in the beginning of the 16th century. Soon afterwards, Charles V. established similar schools at Burgos and in Sicily. The French founded a school of practical A. in 1675; and in 1679, they added to it a theoretical school at Douai. At present, France has no fewer than seven such establishments. Saxony had an A. school in 1766- but the other German state were more tardy in this work. In Prussia, the A. and engineer schools are combined; but in others of the European states, a separation between these two arms of the science is made. Inmost schools of A., the officers’ studies comprise mathematics, as much of physics and chemistry as is necessary to the duties of an artillerist, field and permanent fortification, garrison-warfare, field-tactics, military history and topography, military surveying and sketching, drawing from the model, &c. The practical exercises include the serving and firing of guns and mortars, the laying out and constructing of field-batteries, and the operations of the laboratory and A. workshop.

The headquarters for A. instruction in England are at Woolwich. A Royal Military Academy was established there in 1741, to impart professional instruction to the artillerists and engineers belonging to the royal army. The East India Company sent their A. cadets to this Academy from the year 1798 to 1810; but afterwards, until 1861, they maintained a separate establishment at Addiscombe (which, however, was not wholly for artillery). At the present day, the students in the Academy are recruited by fair open competition. They enter between the ages of seventeen and twenty; and they remain two years, or such longer time as may fit them to pass an examination for the Royal A. or Engineers. The sons of military officers are admitted on lower terms than those of other persons. The financial control is under the Secretary of State for War; but the Commander-in-chief regulates the discipline and internal arrangements. There are 22 professors and instructors of various kinds. Besides this Royal Military Academy, there is at Woolwich a Department of A. Studies, for the instruction of junior officers of A., and for facilitating their visits to the fortifications and public works of foreign countries. There is also a Select Committee, whose duties are not so much educational as experimental; it is a small establishment for examining and reporting on the numerous inventions relating to artillery, brought before the War Office. The School of Gunnery at Shoebury Ness, subordinate to the headquarters of the A. at Woolwich, is for experiments upon ordnance, gunpowder, and projectiles, and to exercise young A. officers in the practical and mechanical duties of their profession. See ARTILLERY in AM. SUPP.

PRIVATEE’R, a ship owned by a private individual, which, under government permission expressed by a Letter of Marque (q. v.), makes war upon the shipping of a hostile power. To make war upon an enemy without this commission, or upon the shipping of a nation not specified in it, is piracy. Privateering was abolished by mutual agreement among European nations by the Treaty of Paris in 1856. It is doubtful, however, how far that abolition would stand in a general war, for privateering is the natural resource of a nation whose regular navy is too weak to make head against the maritime power of the enemy, especially when the latter offers the temptation of a wealthy commerce.

A’RTICLES OF WAR are regulations made for the government of the military and naval forces of the country. They are of three classes�1. Those relating to the army, including therein the forces in India, according to the provisions of the 21 and 22 Vict. c. 106; 2. Those relating to the marine forces; and 3. Those relating to the navy.