Vickipedia

SOCIAL SCIENCE, a name that has of late years been given to the study of all that relates to the social improvement of the community. A society, called ‘The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science,’ was first organized at a meeting which was held under Lord Brougham’s auspices in July 1857, to consider the best means of uniting together all those interested in social improvement. The annual meetings have been held each year at a different place. The Association as now constituted comprises five sections—1. Jurisprudence and Amendment of the Law (subjection, Repression of Crime); 2. Education; 3. Health; 4. Economy and Trade; 5. Art. The Association aims at promoting improvement in all matters falling within these departments, by means of bringing together, for free discussion, societies and individuals interested in social problems.

sociology is the somewhat barbarous name that has of late been used to denote the study of the origin, organization, and development of human society.

WE’RE-WOLF (Aug.-Sax. wer, a man), a man-wolf, a man who, either periodically or for a time, is transformed, or transforms himself into a wolf, becoming possessed of all the powers and appetites of a wolf in addition to his own, and being especially remarkable for his appetite for human flesh. The belief in the transformation of men into wolves or other beasts of prey has been very widely diffused; there is perhaps no people among whom some evidence of its former prevalence does not exist. It is not yet extinct, even in Europe. In many of the rural districts of France, the loup-garou (the latter part of the word is a corruption of the Teutonic wer-wolf), is still an object of dread. This superstition lingers too among the country-people of Northern Europe, and a particular form of it nourishes vigorously among the Bulgarians, Slavonians, and Serbs, and even among the more intelligent inhabitants of Greece. See VAMPIRE. Its details vary in different countries and districts. The definition given above includes only the commonest and the best marked of its incidents. Probably, it has not yet entirely disappeared in any country whose rural districts are infested with wolves or other wild animals; and manifestations fitted to suggest it may be occasionally observed in the mad-houses of most countries. See LYCANTHROPIA. The animal whose shape is taken, as already stated, is not always, though usually, a wolf; it was probably always the animal most formidable, or considered most inimical to man. In Abyssinia, it is the hyæna.

Occasional notices of lycanthropy, as it is called, are found in classical writers; and lycanthropy, as there described, was the change of a man or woman into a wolf, so as to enable the man or woman to gratify an appetite for human flesh, either by magical means, or through the judgment of the gods, as a punishment for some dire offence. Sometimes the transformation was into the shape of a dog or a bull. Ovid, in his Metamorphoses, tells the story of Lycaon, king of Arcadia, who, when entertaining Jupiter at a banquet, resolved to test his omniscience by serving up to him a hash of human flesh. The god, to punish him for this, transformed him into a wolf. Herodotus describes the Neuri as sorcerers who had the power of taking once a year, for several days, the shape of wolves; and the same account of them is given by Pomponius Mela. Pliny relates that, in Arcadia, every year, at the festival of Jupiter Lycæus, one of the family of Antæus was chosen by lot, and conducted to the brink of the Arcadian Lake, into which, after having hung his garments upon a tree, lie plunged, and was transformed into a wolf. Nine years after, if alive, he returned to his friends, looking nine years older than when he disappeared. Some notices of lycanthropy are to be found in Petronius; and allusion to it is also made by Virgil in the 8th Eclogue. Marcellus Sidetes tells us of men who, every winter, were seized with the notion that they were dogs or wolves, and lived precisely like these animals, spending the night in lone cemeteries. This disorder attacked men chiefly in the beginning of the year, and was usually at its height in February. It is worth while observing that the classical instances of lycanthropy mostly refer to Arcadia, a pastoral country whose inhabitants suffered greatly from the ravages of wolves.

In Norway and Iceland, it used to be believed that there were men who were ‘ not of one skin.’ Such men could take upon themselves other shapes than that of man, and the natures corresponding to the shapes which they assumed; they had the strength and other powers of the animal whose shape they bore, as well as their own. It was believed that the change of shape might be effected in one of three ways : simply by putting on a skin of the animal; by the soul of the man deserting the human body—leaving it for a time in a cataleptic state—and entering into a body borrowed or created for the purpose; or, without any actual change of form, by means of a charm, which made all beholders see the man under the shape of the animal whose part he was sustaining. The two former were the common modes of transformation; at any rate, the Sagas are full of illustrations of them; while illustrations of the third mode are comparatively rare. Nothing of the man remained unchanged except his eyes; by these only could he be recognized. Odin had, and freely exercised, the power of varying his shape. When men changed their shape to prey upon their kind, they always took the form of a wolf. It was believed that many had the power of thus transforming themselves; and great was the popular dread of were-wolves. Perhaps the best stories-of were-wolves which are to be found are contained in the Northern Sagas. Scarcely anywhere did the belief in them go so deep into the minds of the people as among the northern races. In connection with it, notice may be taken of what is called the ‘Berserkr rage,’ which appears to have been a peculiar form of mania. The Berserkr yelped like dogs, or wolves rushing into conflict, bit their shields with their teeth, and committed terrible-atrocities while the paroxysms of their disease were upon them. Berserkr has been rendered ‘ bare-skinned;’ others make it mean ‘ wolf-skin-coated ‘ (why not ‘bear-skin-coated ?’).

Olaus Magnus states that in Prussia, Lithuania, and Livonia, though wolves were very numerous and troublesome, the ravages of the were-wolves were regarded as much more serious. Every year at the feast of the Nativity at night, the were-wolves assembled in great numbers at appointed places, and proceeded to loot out for human beings or tame animals, upon which they could glut their appetites. If they found an isolated house, they entered it, and devoured every human being and tame animal it contained; after which—showing that they were not common wolves —they drank up all the beer or mead. Similar testimony with regard to Livonia is given by Bishop Majolus, who adds, that the transformation into the wolf-form continued for twelve days.

Instances of persons being changed into wolves by way of punishment, were freely believed in the middle ages; for example, St. Patrick was believed to have changed Vereticus, king of Wales, into a wolf; and there was an illustrious Irish family which had incurred the curse of St. Natalis, every member of which, male and female, according to the popular belief, had to take the shape of a wolf, and live the life of a wolf for seven years.

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the belief in were-wolves was, throughout the continent of Europe, as general as the belief in witches, which it had then come to resemble in many respects- It gave rise to prosecutions almost as frequent as those for Witchcraft (q. v.), and these usually ended in the confession of the accused, and his death by hanging and burning. It was calculated to inspire even greater terror than witchcraft, since it was believed that the were-wolves delighted in human flesh, and were constantly lying in wait for solitary travelers, and carrying off and eating little children. The were-wolves, like the witches, were now regarded as servants of the devil, from whom they got the power-often exercised by anointing with a salve—of assuming the wolf’s form; and it was believed that great numbers of them trooped together to the devil’s Sabbath. The stories of mutilations and other mishaps befalling them in the wolf-state, by which, when they resumed the human form, the}’ were identified as were-wolves, exactly resemble the stories told of witches.

In September 1573, we find a court of parliament sitting at Dole, in Franche-Comte, authorizing the country-people to take their weapons, and beat the woods for a were-wolf, who had already—thus went the recital—’ carried off several little children, so that they had not since been heard of, and done injury to some horsemen, who kept him off only with great difficulty and danger to their persons.’ Throughout Europe, the judicial cognizance of witchcraft and of lycanthropy ceased at the same time. In Great Britain, where wolves had early been exterminated, the were-wolf was only known by rumors coming from abroad; but the belief that witches could transform themselves into cats and hares, which did prevail, was precisely analogous to the belief in werewolves, especially in its later forms.

The later forms of this strange belief were obviously sophisticated. In its earlier shape, three things are to be noticed—the-power ascribed to the were-wolf of transforming himself, either by changing the shape of his own body, or projecting his spirit into another body; his appetite for human flesh; his taking the shape and nature of the animal held to be most malicious against man—the wolf. As to the first of these, all that can here be done is to point to its connection with the doctrine of Transmigration (q. v.), and to add that it has been one of the commonest of human beliefs. As to the second, is it unlikely that in the early times in which the superstition had its origin, the appetite for human flesh may have been common enough to spread terror through whole-districts ?

It is, at least, not improbable that every race of men has had an experience of cannibalism; and it may well have been that, in occasional cases, especially under conditions of disease, the taste for human flesh survived the general practice of using it. Modern Europe affords many unquestionable examples of this taste existing and being indulged in the midst of comparative civilization. There can be no doubt that some of the unhappy multitude put to death as were-wolves had really murdered and eaten the flesh of human beings. But secret murders, unaccompanied by cannibalism, would tend to support a popular belief in cannibalism. We have not to go out of our own age for proofs of the existence of men afflicted with a homicidal tendency; and in times when the means of detecting crimes were very imperfect, it is conceivable that the murders committed by one or two such persons would spread terror, and give support to a superstitious theory throughout a large district. The Marechal de Retz, who lived in the time of our Henry VI., had caused to be stolen and put to death by torture, under the most inhuman circumstances, many hundred children—he confessed on his trial that he murdered 120 in a single year. (A memoir of Gilles de Laval, Marechal de Retz, has been compiled from authentic documents by P. J. Lacroix, the eminent French antiquary.)

Perhaps no society has ever been free from men similarly constituted, and acting similarly according to their opportunities. As to the third point, if it be granted that a certain practice of, or general suspicion of cannibalism existed among a people, who believed in the power of transformation, it is easy to understand how the cannibal, getting his victims by stealth, was supposed to indulge his inhuman appetite under the guise of the animal most unfriendly to man. And the existence of a form of mania in which the madman had the hallucination that he was changed into a wolf, yelled like a wolf, lived in many respects like a wolf, was calculated strongly to confirm the belief in men-wolves. In conjunction with the mischief done by real wolves, this itself may be thought almost enough to have given origin to the superstition. The hallucination of having undergone transformation into a wolf from time to time, seems to have been one of the commonest by which weak and crazed brains were possessed during the period when the hunt for were-wolves was kept up. The literature of this subject, though abundant, is for the most part fragmentary, .•and mixed up with other matters. A good account of the subject will be found in The Book of Were-wolves, by Sabine Baring-Gould (Lond. 1865).

ZU’LU, or AMAZULU, is the name of that portion of the Kaffir race who inhabit Natal and the region north-east of it, until they gradually merge into the mere negro of the east coast, north of the Zambesi. The Kaffir organization appears to hold an intermediate place between that of the negro and a higher type; and as we go south and west, from the swamps and malaria of Delagoa Bay and Sofala to the more healthy and bracing regions of Natal and Independent Kaffraria, the Kaffir features appear, as it were, to grow more refined—the mouth protrudes less, the lips are less thick, and the nose assimilates more to that of the European, although the distinguishing type of woolly hair may still continue.

The Z. Kaffir is a far more amiable savage than his brother the Amakosa of the Cape frontier districts. He is less warlike and predatory, more industrious, and far more willing to act in the capacity of a farm-laborer or domestic servant. In language, customs, habits, &c., although certain tribal and local differences occur, yet they may be called common to all the nation, as a Z. Kaffir has no difficulty in understanding a native of British Kaffraria; and his views of a future state, purchase of wives, &c., are pretty similar. The Z. is by nature social, light of heart, and cheerful; his affections are gentle, steady, and enduring; his passions are, however, strong, and called out when in a state of war. He is comparatively chaste; crimes which stain European or Eastern civilization are unknown to him. He is hospitable and honest, yet greedy and stingy; he is kind to his own family, yet cruel to dumb animals; and whatever the better nature of his impulses may be, yet when his great chief commands war, he is converted into a demon. He is proud, and very easily can distinguish between an English gentleman and the loafing tribe with which too many of our colonies are afflicted. The writer of this article, by the exercise of a little kindness and firmness, has experienced the most utter devotion from individuals of the Kaffir race generally. Their reasoning powers are good, and with an improved education, a Z. rationalist might not disgrace a chair in the Sorbonne. It is from the Z. country, however, that those terrible tyrants who so long devastated South-eastern Africa, the chiefs Chaka, Dingaan, Moselikatze, &c. issued. The training of their subjects to a peculiar mode of warfare spread desolation and havoc for many years amongst the Betjuana and other tribes of the interior, until eventually these mighty chiefs with their thousands of followers, fighting, like Homer’s heroes, hand to hand, armed with stabbing assagais and shields of ox-hide, the colors of which distinguished the different regiments they were formed into, melted way with broken power into comparative insignificance before the terrible rifles of a few hundred emigrant Dutch Boers, who, in their turn, gave way to the energetic action of the British authorities (see natal). The Zulus, although they have very often serious intestine wars amongst themselves, have generally lived on friendly terms with the Natal colonists. That their warlike qualities have not decayed was sufficiently shown in the war that broke out in 1879 between England and Ketchwayo (Cetewayo), the Zulu king. Within a week or two after the British forces crossed the Natal frontier, the Zulus inflicted a severe blow on the invaders by surrounding a camp at Isandhlwana and annihilating the defenders. They repulsed several attacks on their strongholds; but after the British had received reinforcements, were defeated at Ginghilovo, and completely broken by Lord Chelmsford at Ulundi on the 3d July. The king was captured shortly afterwards, and deported to Cape Town.

The Zulu country was divided amongst twelve chiefs (having four British residents). But in 1883, Ketchwayo was reinstated in the central portion of his kingdom, under certain restrictions, with an English resident. The north-east part of his former domains is under a chief independent of the Zulu king; and on the south, adjoining the Natal border, another strip of territory is reserved for the chiefs unwilling to come again under Ketchwayo’s authority (one of whom, John Dunn, is of English blood).

A number of missionary societies of the Wesleyan, American, Norwegian, and Episcopal churches labor amongst these tribes. Considerable interest was some time ago provoked with regard to Bishop Colenso’s peculiar views for evangelizing these heathens; and Colenso’s Zulu was for a while almost as famous as Macaulay’s New Zealander.

The Amafengu tribe, now settled along the Cape frontier, are a broken tribe of Zulus, driven far to the south-west by Chaka or Dingaan. then reduced to slavery by the Amakosa Kaffirs, and freed by Sir B. Durban in the Kaffir war of 1834—1835. The principal Z. tribes are the Amazulu, the Amahute, Amazwazi, and Amatabele. The last emigrated far northwards to the mountains which separate the basins of the Limpopo and Zambesi.

INDIANS, AMERICAN. The name American Indians, applying, as it does, to all the tribes which inhabited the New World when it first became known to Europe, and to their descendants since that date, originated in a geographical misconception that this New World was but the projection or extension of India or the east of Asia, and that consequently the natives were sto-graphically connected with the people of the East Indies. The islands between North and South America were, accordingly, the ‘West Indies.’ The western hemisphere has not been lucky in the naming either of the country itself, or its aborigines.

The origin of the American race or races is still a much-vexed and unsettled question. The theory, having hitherto, perhaps, had the balance of repute in its favor, derives them from Asia. ferrying them across Behring Strait. In the Swedish Polar expedition (1878-79), Prof. Nordkensjold traced in the Tchuktchis, on the north-east coast of Siberia, an ‘ unmistakable stamp of the Mongols of Asia, and the Eskimo and Indians of America.’ Lieutenant Palander of the same expedition, however, assimilates those Tchuktchis to the Greenland Eskimo, while Peschel groups them with the native tribes of Kamtchatka. The Samoyedes and other Arctic races of Asia, it is further pointed out, are of Mongoloid stock, and distinctly round-headed; while the Eskimo, next to the Kai Colos of Fiji, are the longest-headed race on the globe.

The derivation of the American races in whole or in part from Chinese, Japanese, or other Asiatic arrivals on the western seaboard, is attended with at least equal difficulties; for where are any affinities between such emigrants and the American races in language, customs, arts, modes of life? The latter, at the time of their discovery, had neither rice, wheat, barley, oats, or rye; nor iron; nor horse, sheep, camel, or poultry; all which, since then, propagate and flourish in the New World. The natives were found cultivating only maize, squashes, plantains, cassava, potato, tobacco. They had but one poor beast of burden, the llama, confined to the uplands of South Cordilleras, and one species of dog unrepresented in the Old World. Their knowledge of metals was limited to copper, bronze, lead, gold, and silver.

The language of the red men, furthermore, is generically different from all Asiatic languages; from the Indo-Chinese monosyllabic character, from the agglutinating Ural-Altaic, from the inflexional Semitic and Aryan; it is, in fact, a product purely and wholly of America, without any Old World affinities or analogies whatsoever describable as polysynthetic or hugely agglomerative, expressing a whole sentence sometimes in a seventeen-syllabled word. This character applies to all their 760 inextricably intermixed languages. Then their physical, and for the most part their mental traits also are, as an ensemble, all their own. Their hair is universally black, straight, glossy, and long, never wavy, persistent to old age, properties characterizing also the hair of the mummies of the Ancon necropolis, and other places of Peru; the beard very scanty, generally wholly, sometimes only partially, rooted out; the eyes small, deep-set, always horizontal, soft, partially closed and languid when not roused by passion, and overset by narrow and high-arched eyebrows; the brow itself, broad and low, receding in a very remarkable degree towards the flat crown; the cheek-bones broad and prominent; the nose also prominent and sensitive, often very long and aquiline; the hands delicate and long-fingered, soft and smooth like the silken skin of the whole body; the whole lire supple, elastic, shapely, and agile. The features are generally regular, and often handsome. The Crows, in particular, six feet high, with exceedingly long hair reaching to the ground, and in some cases measuring 10 feet (all of a piece), are described as decidedly handsome, or even noble. The women, with their soft luscious figures, dark soft eyes, delicate hands, and altogether feminine characteristics, are said to be not without their sensuous attractions. In complexion they are mostly of a copper, cinnamon brown, or olive-yellow hue, though there are also many varieties, merging on one side into the deep, almost negro tint of the Guaicuri and Pericui of Lower California, and the Charruas of Uruguay; and on the other side into the almost brilliant blonde of the Mandans and Hydas (Queen Charlotte islanders). The body lithe, swift, and supple, is yet not so strong generally as that of the European or Negro type, nor capable of so much hardship, fatigue, or enduring strain. In stature, the races range from the dwarfish Eskimo and the Peruvian, with a mean height of 4 feet 9 inches, to the 6-foot Crow and the gigantic Patagonian. Physically, the North American in his native state is peculiarly haughty, serious, habitually taciturn and grave, yet on occasion eloquent and naively imaginative; full of simple childlike wonderment and trustfulness till suspicion has been aroused; with plenty of slumbering passion, which excited becomes overmastering; in warfare stealthy, soft-paced, cunning, treacherous, with unslakable fury of revenge when the enemy is in his clutch; yet remarkably cold and stoical in outward manner, suffering with proud nonchalance the utmost extremity of fate. Altogether, he is somewhat of a sad, soft, serious, passionate, pathetic personage.

All signs, then, would seem to favor the theory that the native Americans are as indigenous to the country as are its peculiar fauna and flora; or at all events, if they did originally issue from Asia, it must have been in a most remote pre-historic time.

When the country was discovered, the most civilized parts were those extending from New Mexico to Peru, the best specimens of architecture being found in the Maya region and in Peru. The Pueblo Indians of New Mexico had towns surrounded by high walls scaled by ladders. There was also in Mexico a system of picture-writing, and there they boasted of records to a remote date. The Peruvians used quipos or knotted cords as aids to memory. In this quarter was also a more or less constituted government by kings and hereditary chiefs. Outside this region, the only monuments are mounds, principally in the Ohio valley, of peculiar shape, apparently symbolical. All beyond, the native races in numberless, widely-scattered, small-clustered tribes and clans, roamed their primeval forests of oak and pine, of cotton-wood and pecan, and the immeasurable prairies; subsisting chiefly by the chase, hunting the droves of buffaloes, the elk, the antelope, trapping beavers, &c. They had attained to marvelous swiftness and precision of movement. From his horse at full gallop the Indian will shoot you 15 or 20 arrows a minute at flying buffaloes, all with sure aim and deadly effect. The Gauchos and other mixed races of South America, at the present day challenge the world in horsemanship. They will swing themselves under the belly of the horse, hang on there with toe and heel, while the horse is in full chase, then bound aloft on its back again at wire. The Indians are almost all hunters armed with bow and arrow, with spear and dart; in South America, with lassoes, and stoneballs attached to hide-ropes. In their wild state, they live in wigwams, of bark among the Iroquois, but generally of hides among the other tribes. They, especially the Crows, are highly skilled in dressing skins. Their own clothing consists of a robe and leg-covering for the men, and a short petticoat for the women, though in some warm places the clothing is very scanty. Some of the tribes dress richly and picturesquely. A chief is arrayed in a shirt or tunic made of two deerskins, and embroidered with porcupine quills and the hair of scalps. Over this is a robe of the skin of the young buffalo-bull, with the hair remaining on, liner or flesh side garnished with porcupine quills, and a rude portrayal of the battles or events of the wearer’s life. The legs are encased in deerskins, also ornamented, and the feet shod in moccasins of buckskin.

All the tribes are fond of painting and tattooing their bodies, figures being varied for grief or joy, for war or peace. The use of tobacco is almost universal, and a chief boasts a pipe four five feet long and two inches wide, wound with braid of porcupine quills, the bowl ingeniously carved by the chief himself. The calumet is the symbol of peace, and solemnizes all treaties and all great councils. The Indians believe in the Great or Good Spirit, but also in evil spirits particularly needing to be propitiated. The dead are solemnly buried with a supply of food and implements for the next world. One of the great features of Indian life is ‘ medicine’ (the word adopted from the French) or mystery. The ‘ medicine man’ is physician, magician, prophet, soothsayer, juggler, and high-priest. Every respectable Indian has a ‘ medicine bag,’ made of the skin of an animal, bird, or reptile, and elaborately ornamented, stuffed with grass or moss, and religiously closed or sealed. This bag is in the highest degree sacred; days, and even a week of fasting, and sacrifices of dogs and horses being devoted to it. At 14 to 15 a boy is ‘ forming his medicine ‘—that is, he wanders from his father’s house, absenting himself for two, three, sometimes even five days, during which time he lies on the ground crying to the Great Spirit, and fasting all the time. After he has fallen asleep from weariness, the animal he dreams of is his ‘ manitou,’ the protector assigned him by the Great Spirit for life. Having returned home and satiated his appetite, he sallies out with weapons to procure the animal or bird he dreamt of, which he then preserves entire about him through life for ‘good luck.’ In death it is buried with him. To lose it in war or otherwise is to lose one’s honor, which is retrievable only by conquest of the medicine-bag of a tribal enemy. All the Indian religions of North America seem to have arisen out of ancestor worship (see totem). In the science of medicine proper, the Indians have a pretty large empirical knowledge, having particular herbs and appliances for asthma, coughs, diarrhœa, diseases of the skin, &c.

Before acquaintance with Europeans, the Indian beverage was almost exclusively water. In Mexico, however, Pulque (q. v.), the fermented sap of the agave, was drunk, as also in South America a beverage made from fermented cashew and other fruits.

The trained hauteur and stoicism of the Indians is remarkable. One day, during King Philip’s war in New England, a chief ran unawares into the hands of the English. A young official of twenty-two questioning him, the chief refused conversation with him : ‘ You much child, no understand matters of war.’ When sentenced to death, ‘ he liked it well, he would die before his heart was soft, or had spoken anything unworthy of himself.’ Hatuay, a powerful chief of Hispaniola, urged to embrace Christianity before he was burned, and thus go to heaven, refused to ‘go where he would meet any of the accursed Spanish race.’ In a re-union of the most intimate relations and friends, the Indians maintain the coldest reserve, and yet at death the lamentation of the survivors is extreme. In the Far West, and among the Rocky Mountains, where the Indians are yet intact from the whites, they live simply, cleanly, and hospitably. Mr. George Catlin, who lived eight years exclusively among the different tribes of North America—himself evidently of an artless, childlike, silvan nature—looks upon the Indians ‘ as the most honest and honorable race of people I ever lived amongst in my life.’ During all those eight years, he everywhere met the most cordial hospitality, and the kindest offices at their hands, while he ‘ never lost the value of a shilling among them.’

‘ Civilization,’ however, has proved the ruin of the Indian morally and physically. Thirst of revenge, unquenchable hate, loss of self-respect, and whisky, have been the constant heritage (especially in the United States) entailed on the reds by the approach of the whites. The policy of the first English settlers and the United States has all along- been to thrust the Indians ever farther into the west, till now there are no wild tribes east of the Mississippi. The Cherokees and Creeks were bodily removed from Georgia to the Indian Territory in 1838. Virginia had three Indian wars or massacres, 1622, 1629, and again 1676; New England two—the Pequot war, 1637, and King Philip’s war, 1675. The United States policy with the Indians has not been satisfactory or successful, and difficulties and small wars have been frequent. Missions have been largely prosecuted amongst them by individuals and societies. The French and the Spaniards, had missions; and of Protestant missionaries the names of Mayhew, John Eliot, and the Brainerds are conspicuous. The five civilized tribes of the Indian Territory (q. v.) raised (1880) over 3,000,000 bushels of grain, and had 100 schools, and 8500 pupils—industries being taught there and on the other reservations. Nevertheless, as a rule, the Indians recognize their inevitable doom, and all spirit dies out of them. ‘ They are migrating to their fathers and the setting sun.’ In Canada, where there is more room, the Indians still live at peace with the colonists as they did with the French, to the degree even of intermarrying with them. Three towns of Canada are exclusively Indian. The great mass of Spanish Americans are of Indian origin.

In the United States there were in 1880 over 303,000 Indians (and from the census it appeared that the tribal Indians included in that total are on the increase). In Canada there were in 1881 close on 104,000. In North America altogether the Indians are calculated at considerably less than four millions; and in South America, including pure and mixed, about seven millions.

The following is from A. H. Keane’s General Scheme of American Races and Languages:

1. Sub-Arctic Races—Eskimos Aleuts, Thlinkeets.

2. Athabascan or Tinney Family.

3. Algonquin family, from Canada to South Carolina, and from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. To the northern branch belonged or belong the Chippewas or Ojibways, Ottawas, and Crees; to the eastern, the Abenakis, Penobscots, Mohicans or Mohegans; to the southern, Powhattans, Rappahannocks, Shawnees; and to the western, Illinois, Miamis, Cheyennes, and Blackfeet.

4. Wyandot-Iroquois family, from Upper Canada to West Virginia, surrounded by Algonquins. To them belong Wyandots or Hurons, Iroquois or ‘ Six Nations ‘ (including Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Senecas, Cayugas, Tuscaroras), and Monocans.

5. Dakota or Sioux family, including Assiniboines, Winnebagoes, Omahas, Iowas, Kansas, Crows.

6. Appalachian Races—Muscogee group, Cherokees, Catawbas, Natchez, &c.

7. Columbian Races.

8. Californian Races.

9. Shoshone and Pawnee families, from Idaho to New Mexico, including Utes, &c.

10. New Mexican and Arizona Races.—Pueblos nations, &c.

11. Mexican Races—Aztec-Sonora group, Miztec, Zapotec, Zacatec, &c.

12. Central American Races.

13. Orinoco Races—Carib family, Barre family, &c:

14. Amazon Races.

15. Peruvian and Bolivian Races.

16. Brazilian Races—Guarani family, Botocudos, &c.

17. Patagono-Chilian Races—Araucanians, Puelches, Tehuelches, Fuegians.

INDIAN TERRITORY, a country reserved by the government of the United States for the Indian tribes removed west of the Mississippi, and those living there. It lies between 33° 30′ and 37° N. lat., and 94° 20′ and 103° W. long., being 370 miles long-by 220 wide, with an area of 74,127 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Kansas, E. by Arkansas, S. and W. by Texas, from which it is separated on the south by the Red River. It is a beautiful country, with vast fertile plains, watered by innumerable streams, including the Red River, the Arkansas, and their branches. The climate is genial, producing cotton, tobacco, maize, wheat, and fruits. Coal, iron, zinc, copper, salt, and petroleum springs abound. Its population of about 70,000 consists of Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and remnants of smaller tribes. The principal tribes are in a high state of civilization, and, except the Seminoles, all possess a written constitution and code of laws. In 1880, there were nearly 100 schools maintained among the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. Many of the Indians cultivate large plantations.

ABORIGINES (Lat.), properly the earliest inhabitants of a country. The corresponding term used fey the Greeks was Autochthones. The Roman and Greek historians, however, apply the name to a special people, who, according to tradition, had their original seats in the mountains about Reate, now Rieti; but, being driven out by the Sabines, descended into Latium, and in conjunction with a tribe of Pelasgi, subdued or expelled thence the Siculi, and occupied the country. The A. then disappear as a distinct people, they and their allies the Pelasgi having taken the name of Latini. The non-Pelasgic element of the Roman population is supposed to represent these A., who would thus belong to the Oscans or Ausonians.

JAPA’N (native name, Nihon or Nippon, i.e., Land of the Rising Sun, or Dai (i.e., Great) Nihon or Nippon), a very ancient island-empire of Eastern Asia, long remarkable for the proud isolating policy of its rulers, and now claiming special consideration, on account both of its recent renewed relations with the civilized world, and of the wonderful changes that, during the last few years have been in progress in the country. The name Japan is a corruption of Marco Polo’s Zipangu.

Japan Proper comprehends four large islands, viz., Honshiu (the Japanese mainland), Shikokŭ, Kiushiu, and Yezo, and extends from 31� to 45� 30′ N. lat. The empire of J.�the area of which has been estimated at near 150,000 sq. miles�includes, in addition to the above, nearly 4000 small islands, among Which are the Liu Kin (’ Loo Choo’) and Kurile groups, and is situated between 24��50� 40′ N. lat., and 124��156� 38′ E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the Sea of Okhotsk, on the E. by the North. Pacific Ocean, on the S. by the eastern Sea of China, and on the W. by the Sea of Japan. In 1880, the population of J. was. 34,358,404.

Physical Features.�The islands of J. appear to be of volcanic origin, and that part of the Pacific on which they rest is still intensely affected by volcanic action. Earthquakes occur very frequently in J., although certain parts of the country are exempt. . is one of the most mountainous countries in the world. Its plains and valleys with their foliage surpassing in richness that of any other extra-tropical region, its Arcadian hill-slopes and forest-clad heights, its alpine peaks towering in weird grandeur above torrent-dinned ravines, its lines of foam-fringed headlands, with a thousand other charms, give it a claim to be considered one of the fairest portions of the earth. The sublime cone of the sacred Fuji san (’Matchless Mountain’), an extinct or rather dormant volcano, rises from the sea to a height of 12,365 feet. On-tak�-san and Yari-ga-tak� (each 10,000 feet), Tat�-yama (9500), Yatsu-ga-dak� (9000), Haku-san (8590), Asama-yama (active volcano, 8260), with many other scarcely lower peaks, rise in Honshiu. The three other large islands also abound in mountains, though of less elevation. Yezo has no fewer than eight active volcanoes. Throughout the empire there are many solfataras, and sulphurous springs well up from hundreds of volcanic valleys. The plains, most of the valleys, and many of the lower hills, are highly cultivated; nevertheless, the area of forest is said to be four times as great as that of the cultivated land. Lakes are not very numerous; but there are countless rivers, most of which, however, are too impetuous to admit of navigation. The harbors are spacious and deep, but not numerous, considering the great length of the coast-line.

Climate.�The different parts of J. differ widely in climatic conditions. Leaving out the northern and southern extremes, at T�kiy� (Yedo) we find the annual average temperature to be 57.7� Fahr., while in winter the mercury occasionally falls to 16.2�, and in summer it may rise to 96�; at Nagasaki, the lowest winter temperature is 23.2�; at Hakodate, the annual extremes are 2� and 84�. The constantly hot weather begins only about the end of Jane, and terminates usually in the middle of September. Spring and autumn are exceedingly agreeable seasons. The ocean current known as the Kuroshiwo (’Black Stream’) considerably modifies the climate of the S.E. coast; thus, while snow seldom Its more than 5 inches deep at Tokiyo, in the upper valleys of Kaga, near the west coast, less than 1� further north, 18 and 20 it are common. The rainfall varies much in different years, it is considerably greater than on the neighboring continent. o month passes without rain; but it is most plentiful in summer, especially at the beginning and the close of the hot seasons, when laudations frequently occur. N. and W. winds prevail in win-ir, and S. and E. in summer. The violent revolving storms called typhoons are liable to occur in June, July, or September. Thunderstorms are neither common nor violent, and autumn fogs are equally rare.

Vegetable Productions-�In Hodgson’s Japan will be found a systematic catalogue of Japanese flora by Sir William Hooker. We can mention only a few of the most noteworthy trees and plants. Chestnut, oak (both deciduous and evergreen), pine, beech, elm, cherry, dwarf-oak, elder, sycamore, maple, cypress, and many other trees of familiar name abound. The grandest forests of pine, and oaks of prodigious size, grow in Yezo; but the Rhus vernicifera or lacquer-tree, the Laurus camphora or camphor-tree, the Broussonetia papyrifera or paper-mulberry�the ark and young twigs of which are manufactured by the Japanese into paper�and the Rhus succedanea or vegetable wax-tree of J., are among the remarkable and characteristic trees of the country. Bamboos, palms, including sago-palms, and 150 species of evergreen trees likewise flourish. Thus, the vegetation of the tropics is strangely intermingled with that of the temperate or frigid zone; the tree-fern, bamboo, banana, and palm grow side by side with the pine, the oak, and the beech, and conifer� in great variety. The camellia, the Paulownia, and the chrysanthemum are conspicuous amongst its indigenous plants. Nymph�as and Parnassia fill the lakes and morasses. The tobacco-plant, the a-shrub, the potato, rice, wheat, barley, and maize are all cultivated. The flora of J. bears a remarkable resemblance to that of he North American continent.

Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Japanese. They are try careful farmers, and their farms are models of order and neatness. They bestow great care upon manures, and thoroughly understand cropping and the rotation of crops. The soil is not naturally fertile, being mostly volcanic or derived from igneous rocks, but is made very productive by careful manuring. It grows tea, cotton, rice (the staple production), wheat, maize, buck-wheat, millet, potatoes, turnips, beans, peas, &c. The rice harvest commences in October. Wheat is sown in drills in November and December, and reaped in May and June. Flails and winnowing machines, similar to those used in England, are common.

Animals.�Wild animals scarcely exist in Japan. A few wolves, fixes, and wild boars still roam in the north of Honshiu. Wild deer are protected by law. The principal domesticated animals are horses, of which there is an indigenous race; oxen and cows, used only as beasts of burden; and dogs, held in superstitious veneration by the people. Birds are very numerous, and include two kinds of pheasants, wild-fowl, herons, cranes, and many species common both to Europe and Asia. There are few reptiles; and of insects, white ants, winged grasshoppers, and several beautiful varieties of moth are conspicuous.

Mineralogy.�The mineral resources of J. are being increasingly developed. In 1880 there were six principal mines worked by foreign methods and machinery. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, sulphur, coal, basalt, felspar, greenstones, granites red and gray, rock-crystal, agate, carnelian, amber, scoriae and pumice-stone, talc, alum, &c., are found in greater or less quantities. Coal-beds extend from Nagasaki to Yezo. The supply of sulphur is almost inexhaustible, and of wonderful purity. But little revenue has yet been derived from the government mines, on account of the necessarily great outlay in the first instance for costly machinery, and the heavy expenses in sinking shafts and constructing furnaces, with other improvements.

Inhabitants.�Ethnologists have referred the Japanese to different types of mankind : Latham classifies them as Turanians; Pickering, as Malays; Prichard, as belonging to the same type as the Chinese; and in the narrative of the United States’ Expedition, they are ranked as a branch of the Tartar family. In Yezo there are about 12,000 Ainos, a hairy race wholly distinct from the Japanese, and in all probability a remnant of the aborigines of Japan. Probably the present Japanese are a mixed race, the issue of the intermarriage of victorious settlers from the Asiatic continent with Malays in the south and Ainos in the north. Physically the Japanese is distinguished by an oval head and face, rounded frontal bones, a high forehead, narrow and often slightly oblique eyes�the irides of a brown-black color, the eyebrows heavy and arched. The complexion varies from a deep copper color to the fairness of western nations, but is more frequently of a light-olive tint. The expression of the face is mild

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and animated. The Japanese ‘ are a people of great qualities and exaggerated defects. They are honest, ingenious, courteous, clean, frugal, animated by a strong love of knowledge, endowed with a wonderful capacity of imitation, with deep self-respect, and with a sentiment of personal honor far beyond what any other race has ever reached. On the other hand, they are fickle, prone to self-conceit, and, especially in the lower classes, deeply tainted with licentiousness. The town costume of the Japanese gentleman consists of a loose silk robe extending from the neck to the ankles, but gathered in at the waist, round which is fastened a girdle of brocaded silk. Over this is worn a loose, wide-sleeved jacket or spencer, decorated with the wearer’s armorial device. A cylindrical cap made of bamboo and silk, white stockings, and neat straw sandals, complete the attire. European costume has been assumed by the government as the official dress; and, although the native costume still prevails among the people generally, such European articles as boots, hats, flannel shirts, &c., are coming more and more into favor as comfortable additions to it. A head entirely shaven is the distinctive mark of priests: in others, the hair used to be shaved off about three inches in front, combed up from the back and sides, and glued into a tuft at the top of the head; but the more natural European mode is now fashionable. The hair of the women is more abundant, but otherwise their dress very much resembles that of the men. In the country, a short cotton gown is often the only clothing, and in summer the lower classes go almost in a state of nudity. The women paint and powder their skin, but consider it barbarous to wear such jewels as earrings.

Manners and Customs.�Many of the customs once characteristic of J. have, since the abolition of feudalism in 1868, become obsolete. Among these is seppuku or hara-kiri (i.e., ‘belly-cut’), for long a legalized mode of suicide. Social barriers, lately almost insurmountable, have been broken down, and some of the most influential posts are now held by men who have risen from the ranks. The social position of women is more favorable than in most pagan countries. Ladies of the upper classes deem it proper to keep themselves in considerable seclusion; but this feeling is becoming somewhat modified. Girls attend the elementary schools as well as boys, and ladies’ colleges have been established under the immediate patronage of the Empress Haruku. Polygamy is not allowed, but concubinage is common. Marriages are arranged by the friends of both parties; among the upper classes, the custom of affiancing children prevails. Formerly, when a maiden married, her teeth were blackened and her eyebrows shaven off; this custom is discountenanced by the Empress, and is gradually being discarded. Prostitution is very prevalent. It is no uncommon thing for a dutiful daughter to sell herself for a term of years to the proprietor of a house of ill-fame, in order to retrieve her father’s fallen fortunes. When she returns, no stigma attaches to her; rather is she honored for her filial devotion. Licensed houses of ill-fame are now confined to certain districts. Street-walking is virtually unknown. Hot baths are a great institution in Japan. Formerly persons of both sexes bathed together; and this primitive custom (in which the simple-minded Japanese sees no impropriety) still prevails in rural districts, although forbidden in the cities. Until lately, the only vehicles in J. were two kinds of palanquin, viz., the kago and the norimon; but in all the more level districts, these have now been superseded by the jin-riki-sha (’ man-power-carriage’), a sort of two-wheeled perambulator drawn by one or two men. Horse-carriages are novel to J., and as yet are rarely seen except in and around the treaty ports. In most of the more mountainous regions, the roads are impracticable even for jin-riki-sha, and the only means of conveyance are kago and pack-horses. The Japanese are essentially a pleasure-loving people. The theater forms one of their chief attractions. They take great delight in visiting public gardens, and admiring the blossoms of spring or the glorious tints of autumn. Professional musicians and dancers, principally young women remarkable for their personal attractions, are in constant request for parties. The floors of Japanese houses are laid with thick, soft, closely-fitting mats, on which the inmates squat, eat, and sleep; these are kept scrupulously clean, the shoes or clogs always being removed on entering. The time of greatest festivity is the New Year, now held contemporaneously with our own. Wrestling, jugglery, and archery are favorite sports; and in the game of go, somewhat like our chess, they attain great skill. For the dead great regard is paid, the ancestral tablet being always placed in the family shrine with the household god. Fish and rice are the staple food of the people, and tea and sake (rice-beer) their beverages.

Language.�In J. there arc two systems of writing: (1) The ideographic system of Chinese hieroglyphic symbols, which dates from the 3d c. AD.; and (2) the phonetic syllabarium, a modification of this, consisting of 47 characters, and a few supplementary monosyllabic sounds. Prior to either of these, some antique form of writing, now consigned to oblivion, is supposed to have existed.

The phonetic alphabet, invented about the year 810 A.D. is known as the Hiragana form of character. In process of time, this system was rendered more complex by the addition of variations, and this led, apparently, to the introduction of another and simpler alphabet, entirely without variants, and known as the Katakana character. Both these phonetic systems are written in perpendicular columns. It is not a little remarkable that the Chinese ideographic symbols retain their ascendancy over the phonetic alphabets, and are adopted almost exclusively for diplomatic documents and the higher class of books.

There is no similarity whatever between the spoken languages of China and J.; the latter�one of the softest tongues out of Italy� is not monosyllabic, but what has been called agglutinate.

The literature of J. is abundant and various, and includes works on history and science, encyclop�dias, poetry, prose fiction, and translations of European works. Besides original writings, the Japanese have adopted the whole circle of Chinese Confucian literature; the Chinese classics indeed form the basis of their literature, system of ethics, and type of thought. The present assimilation of Western ideas is leading to a proportionate neglect of Chinese philosophy; but as yet there is no tendency to discard the cumbrous system of orthography imported from China.

Religions of Japan-�There are two religions in J.�Shinto or Kami no Michi (’ The way of the gods’), the indigenous faith; and Buddhism introduced from China in 552 A.D.�1. Shintoism : The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are ‘ the absence of an ethical and doctrinal code, of idol-worship, of priestcraft, and of any teachings concerning a future state; and the deification of heroes, emperors, and great men, together with the worship of certain forces and objects in nature.’ The principal divinity is the sun-goddess Amaterasŭ, from whom the Mikado is held to be descended.

After the Restoration, the government attempted to free Shintoism from the Buddhist innovations which had contaminated it, and to revive it in its pure form as the national religion. Shinto temples are singularly destitute of ecclesiastical paraphernalia. A metal mirror generally stands on the altar, but even this is a Buddhist innovation. The spirit of the enshrined deity is supposed to be in a case, which is exposed to view only on the day of the deity’s annual festival. The worship consists merely in washing the face in a font, striking a bell, throwing a few cash into the money-box, and praying silently for a few seconds; nevertheless long pilgrimages to famous shrines and to the summits of sacred mountains are often taken to accomplish this. Shintoism is rather an engine of government than a religion; it keeps its hold on the

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masses chiefly through its being interwoven with reverence for ancestors.�2. Buddhism: Of Buddhists there are no fewer than thirty-five sects. The monks have assumed the functions of priests, and Japanese Buddhist worship presents striking resemblances to that of the Romish Church. The history of the Buddhist monasteries, too, often reads remarkably like that of the corresponding institutions in medieval Europe. Notwithstanding the increased patronage recently bestowed upon Shintoism by the government, Buddhism is still the dominant religion among the people. The most popular, as well as the wealthiest and most enlightened, of the Buddhist denominations, is the Monto or Shinshiu sect, which recognizes one God in Amida Buddha (only, however, an abstract principle personified), discountenances asceticism and clerical celibacy, and cultivates preaching, the favorite topic being the duty of self-reliance. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that a clear line can be drawn between adherents of Buddhism and Shintoism respectively; in the popular mind the two faiths are so blended that the temples of both are frequented without much discrimination. The better educated classes are mostly agnostics, striving more or less to regulate their lives by the maxims of Confucius.

Many Japanese temples are magnificent specimens of architecture in wood; they are remarkable for their vast tent-like roofs and their exquisite wood-carving.

Government and Finance.�The Mikado is an absolute sovereign. He administers his affairs through a supreme council, consisting of the premier, vice-premier, and the heads of the great departments of state. This is the actual government. Below this, a legislative council of eminent men, under the presidency of an imperial prince, has the power of elaborating the laws determined upon by the supreme council, but cannot initiate any legislate measure without its consent. There is also an assembly of provincial governors, but it meets but seldom, and is purely consultative. The chief departments of state are: Foreign Affaire, Finance, War, Marine, Education, Public Works, Justice, Colonization of Yezo, Imperial Household, and the Interior. For administrative purposes, J. is divided into 3 Fu (Tokiyo, Kiyoto, and Osaka), 35 Ken or prefectures, each with a governor responsible: to the minister of the interior. A bureaucratic has thus taken the place of the old feudal government. Provincial assemblies, composed of officers elected by the people, have been instituted; the functions of these are at present very limited.

Great progress is being made in finance, education, and public works, as well as the reconstruction of both army and navy. 1 army has been equipped and disciplined on European models by a commission of French officers; it numbers 35,560 men in time of peace, and 50.230 when on a war footing, besides a reserve of 20,000. In 1880 the navy had 27 vessels of all classes. The western calendar (excepting only the names of the months, which are represented by numbers) has, by a recent decree, been adopted; and a national code of laws, based on the Code Napoleon, has been drawn up. Praiseworthy attention has been paid to hygiene; under the central and district boards of health, every town or village has its popularly elected sanitation committee. In 1880 the public debt was �70,000,000, and there was a reserve fund of �10,265,000. The estimated total receipts for the year 1880-81 amounted to �11,986,700, and the expenditure was expected to balance the revenue.

Education, Art.�A university and several special scientific colleges have been established, each with a staff of foreign professors; normal and secondary schools exist in all the more important towns; and there is no village of appreciable size without primary school. More than 500 state students have been sent Europe and America. The education report for 1877, published in 1879, gives the number of elementary schools at 25,459, (attended by 1,594,792 boys and 568,220 girls Learned scientific societies have been formed. Newspapers are widespread. In the mechanical arts, the Japanese have attained to great excellence, especially in metallurgy, and in the manufacture of porcelain, lacquer ware, and silk fabrics; indeed, in some of these departments, works of art are produced, so exquisite in design and

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execution, as to more than rival the best products of Europe. The Japanese have long understood lithocrome-printing. Their drawings of animals and figures generally are wonderfully graphic, i, and true to nature; but in landscapes they fail, from erroneous perspective; and of the art of painting in oils they were, until lately, entirely ignorant.

Commerce.�J. had in 1880 about 80 miles of railway, and great progress has of late been made in the construction of roads. The magnificent fleet of the Mitsu Bishi (’ Three Diamonds’) Steam-ship Company connects the different ports with one another and with China. There is an admirable system of lighthouses and other aids to navigation. In 1878-79, 55,270,402 articles were exchanged by post; 249,429 money-orders were issued in the postal department, representing �740,876; and there were 595 post-office savings-banks. Every considerable town has at least one bank. The basis of the money-system is the yen, equal to the American trade-dollar. The imperial mint at Osaka is larger and better equipped than the Royal Mint in London. Steam-wrought Machinery is being increasingly used, and all kinds of foreign scientific processes are being put in operation.

The commercial intercourse of J. is now carried on mostly with Great Britain and the United States of America. In 1881, the total imports from all countries amounted to �6,572,078, and the total exports to �6,271,215.

The following table shows the extent of the trade by exhibiting the value of the total exports from Japan to Great Britain, and of the total imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Japan, during the five years 1874�1878 :

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The principal item of export from J. to Great Britain is raw silk, valued in 1880 at �204,202; next in value come wax, rice, tobacco, and tea. The staple British import is cotton goods, lined in 1880 at �2,007,850; also woollen fabrics and iron.

History.�To understand something of the government and institutions of J., past and present, it will be necessary to glance at its history and political landmarks. Here we find an emperor, whose Dynasty began to reign 2532 years ago, or 660 b.c. Its founder, Jimmu Tenno, was contemporary with Nebuchadnezzar; and in 168, after a duration of twenty-five centuries, it threw off the oppression and decrepitude of 676 years, and in the person of Mutsuhito, the present Mikado or emperor (the 122d of his race), entered upon a new and promising career. The principal landmarks of Japanese political history are briefly as follows: A time of anarchy and faction on the one side, and a succession of feeble sovereigns on the other, enabled Yoritomo, the Shogun or generalissimo (from Ta-tsiang-kiun, the Chinese term for ‘ the great chief or commander of the army ‘)�or Tycoon (Chinese Tai Kun, i.e., ‘ Great Lord’), as he is called in recent treaties, to usurp the supreme authority. This occurred in 1192 A.D.; but the creation of a Shogun by the Mikado dates from 85 B.C. This high officer was subsequently known to Europeans as the temporal emperor, and to the Mikado they assigned purely spiritual functions; but the Japanese themselves recognized one sovereign only, viz., the Mikado, who held his court at Kiyoto, or Miyako, while his rival in Yedo acted as real sovereign, at the safe distance of 300 miles; and the Shogunate became henceforth a permanent institution. It might now be said that the Shogun governed, but did not reign; while the Mikado reigned, but did not govern; though three times a year he received the homage of his all-powerful subject. He even continued nominally the sole temporal emperor, though pensioned by the Shogun, and deprived of all real authority. In 1603 the Shogun Tokugawa Iyeyasu (the ‘ illustrious ‘) organized a government which secured to the empire a peace of 200 years. He founded likewise a permanent succession, and his descendants reigned at Yedo till 1868. His system was perfected by Iyemitsu, the third Shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty. It was his policy ‘ to preserve unchanged the condition of the native intelligence,’ ‘to prevent the introduction of new ideas,’ and to effect this he not only banished foreigners, interdicted all intercourse with them, and extirpated Christianity, but introduced that ‘ most rigid and cunningly devised system of espionage ‘ that was in full activity at the time of the Earl of Elgin’s mission, as amusingly described by Mr. Oliphant.

‘This espionage,’ says a recent Japanese writer, ‘held every one in the community in dread and suspicion; not only the most powerful daimio felt its insidious influence, but the meanest retainer was subject to its sway; and the ignoble quality of deception, developing rapidly to a large extent, became at this time a national characteristic. The daimios, who at first enjoyed an honorable position as guests at the court of Yedo, were reduced to vassalage, and their families retained as hostages for the rendition of a biennial ceremonial of homage to the Shogun. Restrictions surrounded personages of this rank until, without special permission, they were not allowed to meet each other alone.’ In 1549 St. Francis Xavier introduced the Roman Catholic religion into J., and the Portuguese (who first landed in J. in the year 1543) carried on a lucrative trade; but by-and-by the ruling powers took alarm, ordered away all foreigners, and interdicted Christianity (1624), believing that foreigners impoverished the country, while their religion struck at the root of the political and religious systems of Japan. The converts to that form of Christianity introduced by Xavier, were found to have pledged their allegiance to a foreign power- while their conduct is said to have been offensive towards the Shinto and Buddhist temples; so that in time they came to be regarded as a dangerous and anti-national class whose extirpation was essential to the well-being of the nation, and to the success of the political system then being organized or perfected by Iyemitsu. The Portuguese continued to frequent J. till 1638, when they and their religion were finally expelled; Christianity was suppressed with every cruelty, and at the cost of some 50,000 lives; its professors were murdered, and the ports closed to foreign traffic. From this date the Japanese government maintained the most rigid policy of isolation. No foreign vessels might touch at Japanese ports under any pretence. Japanese sailors wrecked on any foreign shore were with difficulty permitted to return home; while the Dutch, locked up in their factory at Deshima, might hold no communication with the mainland; and the people lived like frogs in a well, till 1853, when they were rudely awakened from their dream of peace and security by Commodore Perry steaming into the harbor of Yokohama, with a squadron of United States’ war-vessels. He extorted a treaty from the frightened Shogun (31st March 1854), and J., after a withdrawal of 216 years, entered once more the family of nations. Other countries slowly followed the example of the United States: Russia and the Netherlands in 1855; our own treaty followed in 1858; that with France in 1859; with Portugal in 1860; with Prussia and the Zollverein in 1861; with Switzerland in 1864; with Italy in 1866; and with Denmark in 1867. By these the seven ports of Nagasaki, Kanagawa (for this Yokohama has been substituted). Hiyogo (or Kobe), Yedo (now called Tokiyo), Osaka, Hakodate, and Niigata were opened to foreign commerce.

It will thus be seen that ‘ the history of the empire of the Rising Sun is divisible into four distinct periods : the first, which ends with the landing of the Portuguese in 1543. is purely local; the second, which extends from 1543 to 1638, includes the story of St. Francis Xavier, the trade with Portugal, the persecutions, and the final expulsion of Europeans; the third, from 1638 to 1854. is distinguished by the Dutch monopoly, and the resolute exclusion of all foreigners; in the fourth, since 1854, J. has once more be-come accessible to everybody.’

In the J. of 1854, we went back to Europe of the 12th c.�to the feudalism of England under the Plantagenets. An aristocratic caste of a few hundred nobles�the Daimiyo or territorial princes of J. (278 in number)�ruled large provinces with despotic and almost independent authority; their incomes reaching in one or two instances to �800,000. By signing the Perry treaty at all, the Shogun gave deep offence to the Daimiyos, and by signing it without the sanction of the Mikado, he committed an act of treason which led to all the confusion, violence, and disaster of the next few years, and ultimately in 1868 to the complete overthrow of his own power and the restoration of the Mikado to his rightful position as actual ruler of the empire. For long, not a few of the most powerful Diamiyos had been dissatisfied with the Sho-gun’s position, and these gladly availed themselves of the pretext now furnished for opposing him. All possible means were taken to bring him into complications with the ambassadors at his court; and to this motive, rather than to any hatred of foreigners, are to be ascribed the numerous assassinations which darkened the period immediately prior to 1868. Every weakening of his power was a step gained towards his overthrow and the longed-for unification of the empire in the hands of the Mikado. At length the Shogun resigned; but it was only after a sharp civil war in the winter of 1867-68 that his power was completely crushed. At the outset of the struggle, the imperial party were decidedly retrogressive in their political ideas, but before its close various circumstances convinced them that without intercourse with foreign nations the greatness which they desired for their country could not be achieved; and when they got into power, they astonished the world by the thoroughness with which they broke loose from the old traditions and entered on a course of enlightened reformation. Recognizing Yedo as really the center of the nation’s life, they resolved to make it the capital; but the name Yedo being distasteful through its associations with the Shogunate, they renamed the city Tokiyo, or Tokei�i.e., Eastern Capital. Here the Mikado established his court, abandoning forever that life of seclusion which had surrounded his ancestors with a halo of semi-divinity, but deprived them of all real power. The venerable city of Kiyoto was at the same time renamed Saikiyo or Saikei�i.e., Western Capital. The Daimiyos resigned their fiefs to the Mikado. This has been represented as a grand act of self-sacrifice on their part; but the truth is that the vast majority of them had come to be mere fain�ants, leaving the government of their territories to the more energetic of their retainers; and it was by a number of the latter that this, in common with the other changes connected with the Restoration, was effected.

Since 1868, Japan has given several remarkable manifestations of self-consciousness. The attitude she assumed towards Corea; her annexation in 1879 of the Liu Kiu Islands, notwithstanding China’s remonstrances and threats; her continual protest against the unpalatable extra-territoriality clauses in the treaties, which declare European and American residents amenable to their own, and not to the Japanese, courts of law�prove that she is far from having lost that bold independence of spirit which has always characterized her.

See K�mpfer, History of Japan (1727); works by Alcock (1863), L. Oliphant (1859), Mossman (1873), Adams (1874), Arinori Moro (New York, 1873), Griffis (New York, 1876); The French works of Humbert and Bousquet; Mitford’s Tales of Old Japan; Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan; Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft; Black, Young Japan (Shanghai, 1880) ; Mounsey, The Satsuma Rebellion (1879); Sir E. J. Reed, Japan (1880); Miss Bird (Mrs. Bishop), Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (1880): Rein, Japnn nach Iteisen und Studein dargestellt (1881); W. G-. Dixon, Land of the Morning (1882); Chamberlain, The Classical Poetry of Japan (1880); Dickens, The Loyal League (a Japanese play, 1880); Cfenji Monogatari (the most famous Japanese romance, Eng. transl., 1882). For the language, see the grammars of the written and spoken languages by Hoffmanu and by Aston, and the dictionaries by Hepburn, and by Satow and Ishibashi.

TU’RKEY, or the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (q. v.), includes large portions of the continents of Europe. Asia, and Africa, and consists of Turkey Proper, which is under the direct rule of the sultan, and of several dependent and tributary states. The arrangements sanctioned by the Berlin Congress in 1878 have largely changed the size and organization of the empire. Turkish affairs could not soon be expected to settle into equilibrium; and on most subjects reliable statistical results are at best approximate. In any case, it is necessary for an understanding of Turkey as it now is, to begin with Turkey as it was before the last momentous war with Russia.

The Almanach de Gotha of 1878 gave the following estimates of the area and population of the Turkish empire before the sweep-tug changes agreed to at Berlin :

Montenegro, formerly a tributary state, had been virtually independent for many years.

The population of the various provinces, even of European Turkey, has always been difficult to ascertain. The most satisfactory estimate was probably one made before the vilayet of Herzegovina was separated from Bosnia, and published in 1876 in the Vienna journal. Monatsschrift für den Orient. This was based on the Salnam6s, or official almanacs of the vilayets, and shows at the same time the distribution of the religions in the provinces, but it takes account only of the male population.

Constantinople, not included in any of the six vilayets, had a total population of 680,000. The total male population of European T., excluding the vassal provinces, was 4,976,000. The entire population of both sexes might, therefore, be assumed to exceed 10,000,000. The proportion of Non-Moslems to Moslems given above (57 to 43) probably understates the numerical predominance of the former.

Many of these estimates have of course become obsolete since the Berlin Congress of 1878 (see History of the ottoman empire). This Congress, which met primarily to revise the ‘ preliminary ‘ treaty of San Stefano, concluded between Russia and Turkey at the close of the war of 1877-78, has revolutionized the relation of the Porte to the subject Christian principalities and provinces, alienated large portions of hitherto Turkish territory, and inaugurated what must necessarily be a new era in the history of the Ottoman empire. The principal results of the Congress’s work are treated under the several heads of the states they chiefly concern (see ROUMANIA, SKRVIA, MONTENEGRO, BULGARIA, &c.), but must here be briefly summarized.

The vassal states Roumania and Servia, as well as Montenegro, were declared independent, and each obtained a change or extension of territory; Roumania. which had to yield up its portion of Bessarabia to Russia, received in compensation the Dobrudscha, cut off by a line from Silistria to Mangalia. Servia was considerably extended to the south. Montenegro received an important addition to its territory, chiefly on the Albanian side, including the port of Antivari. (Dulcigno with its district was added in 1880.) What was formerly the Turkish vilayet of the Danube, was, with the exception of the Dobrudscha, now Roumanian, made into the tributary but automatic principality of Bulgaria, its southern boundary being the Balkan range. A large territory to the south of the Balkans was organized as the separate province of Eastern Roumelia, and though remaining directly under the military and political authority of the Sultan, secured the right of having a Christian governor-general and administrative autonomy.

It was agreed that Herzegovina and Bosnia, excepting a small portion of the latter, should be occupied and administered by Austro-Hungary, and thus in large measure alienated from the Porte; Spizza and its sea-board, immediately north of Antivari, was incorporated with Dalmatia; Greece was to receive additional territory; the Congress recommending that the rectified frontier should run up the Salambria River from its mouth, cross the ridge dividing ancient Thessaly from Epirus, cut off the town of Janina so as to leave it to Greece, and descend the Kalamas River to the Ionian Sea. In Crete the reformed government promised in 1868 was to be immediately and scrupulously carried out. In Asia the changes were much less considerable; the port of Batum. henceforth to be essentially commercial, Kars and Ardahan, with a portion of Armenia, were ceded to Russia, and Khotour, east of Lake Van, to Persia; the Porte engaging to carry out at once much needed administrative reforms in Armenia and elsewhere. By the ‘conditional convention’ made in 1878 between Turkey and the United Kingdom, the English government undertook to defend the Porte’s dominions in Asia, and received in return the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. The rectification of the Greek frontier was not arranged till 1881. After endless negotiations and procrastination, which for a while seemed almost certain to lead to war, the Porte agreed to cede, and Greece to accept, a considerable portion of territory, though less than the Congress of Berlin had recommended. The new frontier gives to Greece all Thessaly south of the watershed forming the northern boundary of the valley of the Salambria (anc. Peneus), including the towns of Larissa and Trikhala; and in Epirus follows the line of the Arta River, leaving the town of Arta to Greece. The fortifications of Prevesa are to be destroyed by the Turks, and the Gulf of Arta is to be neutral.

The area and population of Turkey in Europe have now to be thus arranged :

turkey in europe, generally hilly and undulating, is traversed by a mountain system which has its origin in the Alps, enters T. at the north-west corner, and runs nearly parallel to the coast, under the names of the Dinaric Alps and Mount Pindus, as far as the Greek frontier. This range sends numerous offshoots cast an 1 west; the great eastern offshot being the Balkans (q. v.) range, with its numerous branches to north and south. The rivers of Turkey are chiefly the tributaries of the Danube; the Muritza, Strumo, Vardar; the Narenta, Drin, and Voyutza.

On the high lands, the cold is excessive in winter, owing to the north-east winds, which blow from the bleak and icy steppes of Southern Russia; and the heat of summer is almost insupportable in the western valleys. Violent climatic change is, on the whole, the ruin in European Turkey; but those districts which are sheltered from the cold winds, as the Albanian valleys, enjoy a comparatively equable temperature. The soil is for the most part very fertile; but owing to the positive discouragement of industry by the oppressive system of taxation which was long in force, little progress lias been made in the art of agriculture, and the most primitive implements are in common use. The cultivated product include most of those usual in Central and Southern Europe—viz., maize, rice, cotton, rye, barley, and millet. The mineral products are, iron in abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a little gold, but no coal. The wild animals are the wild boar, bear, wolf, wild dog, civet, chamois, wild ox, and those others which are generally distributed in Europe. The lion was formerly an inhabitant of the Thessalian Mountains.

TURKEY IN asia.—This portion of the Turkish empire is more hilly than the other. The two almost parallel ranges, Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which are the basis of its mountain-system, cover almost the whole of the peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia (q. v.), with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface into elevated plateaux, deep valleys, and enclosed plains. Prom the Taurus chain, the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel to the coast of Syria, and diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates on the Red Sea coast at Sinai. The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Ennak are the chief rivers. On the whole, Turkey in Asia is ill supplied with water; and though the mountain slopes afford abundance of excellent pasture, the plains, and many of the valleys, especially those of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan, are reduced by the parching droughts of summer to the condition of sandy deserts. In ancient times, these now desert districts were preserved in a state of fertility by artificial irrigation; but during the six centuries of almost constant war which convulsed this once fair region, the canals were neglected, and have, ever since the rise of the Osmanli power, remained in an unserviceable condition. Nevertheless, the fertile portions produce abundance of wheat, barley, rice, maize, tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton; the cedar, cypress, and evergreen oak flourish on the mountain-slopes; the sycamore and mulberry on the lower hills; and the olive, fig, citron, orange, pomegranate, and vine on the low lands. The mineral products are iron, copper, lead, alum, silver, rock-salt, coal (in Syria), and limestone. The fauna includes the lion (east of the Euphrates), the hyena, lynx, panther, leopard, buffalo, wild boar, wild ass, bear, wolf, jackal, jerboa, and many others; and the camel and dromedary increase the ordinary list of domestic animals.

Possessions in Africa.—Tripoli is a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. Egypt, under its hereditary khedive, is still tributary to the Porte, though of late years the relations of the tributary ’state to its suzerain have been gradually becoming looser. Tunis, till 1881 under Turkish suzerainty, is since that year practically a French protectorate. See the articles tripoli, EGYPT, tuhis.

Industry, Manufactures, and Trade.—Notwithstanding the primitive state of agriculture in T., the extreme fertility of the soil makes ample amends for this defect. The products are wax, raisins, dried figs, olive oil, silks, red cloth, dressed goat-skins, excellent morocco, saddlery, swords of superior quality, shawls, carpets, dye-stuffs, embroidery, essential oils, attar of roses, opium, corn, plum-brandy, &c. The exports include also wool, goats’ hair, meerschaum clay, honey, sponges, drugs, madder, gall-nuts, various gums and resins, and excellent wines; the imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, glass, pottery, arms, paper, cutlery, steel, amber, &c. Previous to the recent Russian war the average annual value of the imports of Turkey in Europe was estimated at £18,500,000, and the exports at £10.000,000. Trade has dwindled to about one-third of its former dimensions since the war. The exports from the whole of the Turkish Empire to Great Britain amounted, in 1879, to £7.705,594; and the imports thence to £3,473,461. The countries which trade with T. are, in order of importance, Persia, Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Egypt, &c.; and the principal ports of the empire are Constantinople, Trebizond, and Smyrna. The mercantile marine of Turkey is small. In 1879 it comprised only some 230 sea-going ships (a dozen of them steamers), of a total tonnage of 34.800 tons. In 1878 there were over 780 miles of railway open for traffic in European Turkey; in the Asiatic part of the empire, about 175 miles.

Population.—A more heterogenous aggregation of races than that which constitutes the population of the Turkish empire can hardly be conceived. Turks, Greeks, Slavs, Roumanians, Albanians, are largely represented, besides Armenians, Jews, Circassians, &c., and Frank residents. In European Turkey, the Turks are estimated at 2,200,000; the Slavs, including the Bulgarians of the principality, at near 2,000,000; the Greeks at 1,030,000; the Albanians at 1,250,000; and the Roumanians at 1,000,000. Then in Asia there may be 4,450,000 Turks, not to speak of those in Africa; of Turkomans, 100,000; of Kurds. 1,000,000; of Syrians 190,000—all in Asia: 1,000,000 Greeks; 2,400,000 Armenians (partly in Europe); as well as Jews, Arabs (in Asia and Africa), Druses, Franks or Western Christians, Gipsies, Tartars, Circassians and other kindred races, Copts, Nubians, Berbers. &c. Of these, the Greeks and Armenians are traders; the Slavic people and the Albanians are the chief agriculturists in Europe, and the Osmanlis, Armenians, Syrians, and Druses in Asia. Of the whole population about 25,000,000 are Mohammedans, and 15,300,000 Greek and Armenian Christians.

Administration, Religion, Education.—The government of T. has always been a pure despotism; the constitution granted in 1876 and revoked in 1878 was only nominal. The power of the Sultan (also called Padishah, Grand Seignior, Khan and Hunkiar) is much limited by the sheikh-ul-islam, the chief of the Ulemas (q. v.), who has the power of objecting to any of the sultan’s decrees, and frequently possesses more authority over the people than his sovereign. The supreme head of the administration, and the next in rank to the sultan, is the grand vizier (sadri-azam), under whom are the members of the cabinet or divan (menasybi-divaniié). including the president of the council, the ministers of foreign affairs, of war, of the navy, of artillery, of the interior, of justice, of finances, and the other heads of departments of the administration. Governmental crises are frequent, especially of late; but palace intrigues are always a chief power in the state. The governors of the vilayets, or provinces, are styled valis; each vilayet is divided into sanjaks, or livas, ruled by inferior officers; each liva containing a number of cazas. or districts; and each caza a number of nahiyehs.

The provincial governors have no longer the power of life and death; and their power of practising extortion on those under their rule has been greatly diminished. The variable imposts, are, "however, farmed, but considerable restrictions are imposed on the farmers to prevent oppression. The established religion is Mohammedanism, but all other creeds are recognized and tolerated; and since 1856, a Mussulman has been free to change his. religion at pleasure, without becoming liable to capital punishment, as was formerly the case. Education was long neglected, but in 1847 a new system was introduced; and since then, schools for elementary instruction have been established throughout T.; and middle schools for higher education, and colleges for the teaching of medicine, agriculture, naval and military science, &c. Many wealthy Turks, however, send their sons to France or Britain to be educated. The newspapers published in T. are not all printed in Turkish : several of them are printed in Greek. French, and other languages.

Revenue and Debt.—The Turkish government has never published an account of the actual revenue and expenditure of the empire. Estimates were given : bat the budgets were so constructed as either to show a surplus, or to make the income and disbursements balance one another, while it was notorious that there were heavy deficits year by year. Years before the war of 1877, the Turkish exchequer was evidently on the brink of insolvency, as was manifested by the violent expedients proposed for escaping from part of its liabilities. In 1875 a decree reduced the interest payable on the debt to one-half the proper amount; and another decree in 1876 announced that no further payments would be made till the internal affairs of the empire should allow of it. The enormous expenditure of the war, and the loss of valuable provinces, have only added to the utter disorganization of Turkish nuances.

The first budget that admitted a deficit was that of 1874-75, where the revenue was given at £22,552,300, and the expenditure at £22,849,610. In 1875-76 the revenue was estimated at £19,106,352, and the expenditure at £23,143,276, In 1878-79, the revenue was guessed at £14,000,000; expenditure (with part of the war expenses). £50,000,000. At the end of 1880, the Times estimated the available annual revenue at £9,450,000, and the budget expenditure was nearly £12,000,000.

Between 1854 and 1874, when the borrowing power of T. came to an end, fourteen several loans had been contracted to meet deficiencies. At the end of that period, the foreign debt of T. amounted to £184,981,783. The internal and floating debt was stated in 1878 at £75,000,000; and the government had issued vast quantities of caimés or paper money, probably to the nominal value of £90,000,000.

Navy and Army.—The navy consisted in 1878of 15 large armor-clad vessels, 18 smaller iron-dads, and 45 other steamers. During the war of 1877-78, five iron-clads and three other steamers were sunk or taken; and since, three iron-clads have been sold to England.

In the course of the war with Russia, T. contrived to put on a war footing no less than 752.000 men, including reserve and irregular troops. At the end of the war, the disorganized remnant amounted to about 120,000 men. Extraordinary efforts have been made to keep up the army : in 1880. when it had seemed necessary to call out the reserves, the empire actually had an army of 300,000 men, well armed and fairly equipped. According to the reorganization progressing in 1880, the military forces of the empire consist of active army (nizam), two ‘bans’ of landwehr (redif), and a landsturm (mustafiz). When the reorganization is complete, there should be, on the war footing, an available force of 468,000 infantry, 64,800 cavalry, 57,600 artillery, 10,800 pioneers, and 9000 of the military train; total, 610,200 men.

AME’RICANISMS are words and phrases current in the United States of America, and not current in England. These peculiarities are much more prominent in conversation than in writing; indeed, in the American writers that are usually considered classical, it is difficult to detect anything of the kind. The number of absolutely new words introduced into the English language in America is remarkably small. As an instance may be mentioned caucus, for a secret political assembly. This is a corruption of calk-home, a calker’s shed in Boston, where the patriots before the revolution had usually held their meetings. The term Yankee (an Indian corruption of the French Anglais) is another. The great body of A. consists in giving an unusual sense to existing words: as clever, in the sense of amiable, and smart for clever; wagon for a very light kind of carriage; book-store for bookseller’s shop; wilted for withered; creek for a small river, instead of a small arm of the sea.

The several divisions of the Union have their characteristic peculiarities. Thus, in the New England States�Yankeeland proper� ugly is used for ill-natured; friends for relations (so used also in Scotland); and guess for a great variety of things�to think, presume, suppose, &c. This use of guess is confined to New England; the inhabitants of New York and of the Middle States generally employ expect in the same way; while those of the Southern States reckon; and those of the Western States calculate. Several words current in the Middle States are of Dutch origin, as loafer for a vagabond, from the Dutch loopen, to run; and boss for a head workman or employer. The Southern States have fewer peculiarities than any of the other divisions. In the Western States, again, there is hardly any recognized standard of speech, and in some districts ‘ it would hardly be an exaggeration to say that every prominent person has his own private vocabulary.’ The verb to fix is made to do duty for expressing every conceivable kind of action. The vague use of this word is common all over the Union,, but in the West the abuse is carried to the extreme. Help, in the sense of servant, is common to the West and to New England, but is nearly unknown in the Middle States. The well-known phrase go a-head is a coinage of the West; it is sufficiently expressive of the leading characteristic of the American people. Posted-up in a subject, for ‘well informed,’ is one of a class of metaphors indicative of the prominence of mercantile pursuits.

The tendency to the use of slang is excessive in America, especially in the Western States. ‘Every State