Vickipedia

AMO’L, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazanderan, on the Heraz, a river which flows into the Caspian Sea; 76 miles north-east from Teheran. The town is unwalled, but has good bazaars, and is a place of considerable prosperity and wealth. The river, which is powerful and rapid, is crossed by a bridge of twelve arches. Extensive ruins indicate the former importance of Amol. Its most notable building is the mausoleum of Seyed Quam-u-deen, king of Sari and Amol, who died in 1378. In the suburbs are a grand palace, which once belonged to Shah Abbas, and three towers, said to have been temples of the ancient Guebres, or fire-worshipers. The inhabitants of A. cultivate rice and cotton, or are employed in the iron forges and cannon-foundries of the district. The pop. in winter, when greatest, is estimated at 35,000 or 40,000; in summer, many of the inhabitants retire to summer residences in the mountains, which approach within about five or six miles of the town on the south.

INDIA’NA, one of the United States of America, organized in 1816, with a governor and legislature, extends from 37° 47′ to 41° 46′ N- lat., and from 84° 49′ to 88° 2′ W. long., having a length of 275 miles, a breadth of 135 miles, and an area of 33,809 square .miles, or 21,637,760 acres. It is bounded on the N. by Michigan

state and lake, E. by Ohio, S. by Kentucky, from which it is separated by the Ohio River, and W. by Illinois. The state is divided into 92 counties. The capital is Indianapolis, near the center, and its chief towns are Evansville, New Albany, Madison, Richmond, Terre Haute, Lafayette, Fort Wayne, and its only lake-port, Michigan City. The population in 1800 was 4875; in 1810, 24.520; in 1820, 147.178; in 1830, 343,031; in 1840, 685,866; in 1850, 988,416; in 1860, 1,350,941 (of which nearly half were immigrants from other states, and from Germany and Ireland); and in 1870, 1,680,637. The state is level, with sluggish streams and great prairies. It is chiefly drained by the Wabash River and its branches. There are 7700 square miles of coal, portions of which, on the Ohio, are cannel coal of excellent quality. The soil is of wonderful fertility, and the climate, is like that of the south of France, with colder winters, and the hills on the Ohio are covered with fine vineyards. The staple productions are wheat, maize, cattle, swine, tobacco, fruits, wine, &c. In 1869, mines of coal and iron were found, and also quarries of building-stone. There are over 4000 miles of railway, and 374 miles of a canal, uniting the Ohio River with Lake Erie. There is a state university, a normal school, numerous common schools and churches, and about 300 periodicals. Vincennes, on the Wabash, was settled by the French in 1702. Early in this century, the settlements were disturbed by Indian hostilities; the Indians were defeated in 1811 by General Harrison, and the territory was rapidly peopled.

ZU’LULAND. The country lying north-east of the colony of Natal, between its east boundary, the Tugela and Umzimyati rivers, and Delagoa Bay, is generally known under the name of Z., or the Zulu country, inhabited by tribes of Zulu Kaffirs. The great coast chain of mountains, which form in the Cape Colony the Stormbergen, and further to the north-east the Kahlamba and Drachenbergen, still continue well denned to the north-east, running parallel to the coast, but 120 miles distant from it, separating the coast region of Z. from the higher plateaux of the Transvaal, and rising to an average height of 6000 or 7000 feet. East of the Tugela River, the country spreads out into large undulating, grassy plains, but sparsely wooded; while towards the foot of the mountains the kloofs afford some excellent timber. The principal rivers are the Umvoluzi or St. Lucia River, which enters the sea about 80 miles north-east of the Natal frontier; and the Mapoota and its branches, which drain the north part of the region, and fall into Delagoa Bay. The country along the coast between the St. Lucia River and Delagoa Bay is very flat, marshy, and unhealthy. A considerable range of mountains, called the Lebombo, run from the Umvoluzi River almost in a northerly direction to beyond Delagoa Bay, about half way between the coast and the first range we have mentioned, forming a supporting buttress to a plateau of high level, similar to those so common in the Cape Colony and Natal.

This is generally a fertile region, and, as far as the coast-line, is healthy. Sugar, cotton, and other tropical products can be grown as advantageously as in the Natal colony, to which it forms, as it were, an intermediary link between the fever-regions of the east coast and the more healthy climate of Natal and the Cape Colony. The St. Lucia River marks the boundary-line beyond which, to the north-east, Europeans cannot live. Up till the outbreak of the war in 1879, no good map of the Zulu country existed, and even yet, of course, we know very little of its geology or mineral productions. None of the rivers are available for inland navigation, although a large lagoon inside the mouth of the St. Lucia River can be ascended for a few miles. The rivers which flow into Delagoa Bay from the north are sluggish streams, often with no perceptible current, and can be ascended a considerable distance. A large quantity of ivory, rhinoceros’ horns, hides, &c. are collected in this region by traders from Natal; and cattle, Indian corn, &c. thrive well in the country before the swampy region commences. The principal tribes are all of the Zulu race—the Amazulu inhabiting the region bordering on Natal; the Amahute, Amazwazi, &e. the country in the neighborhood of Delagoa Bay. The Portuguese have a very decayed fort and settlement on Delagoa Bay, garrisoned by a few mulatto soldiers, and carrying on some trade with the natives and Dutch Boers in gunpowder, muskets, calico, &c., in exchange for ivory, horns, and other native produce; and a contraband one in slaves Is also, we fear, winked at by the authorities, as captures are often made along tile coast by our cruisers.

The Dutch emigrant Boers, who very much required a port on the sea-board of South-east Africa, would long since have seized on Delagoa Bay, if it were not from a wholesome dread of the very unhealthy climate, which appears to affect those stalwart sons of the highlands of South-east Africa more even than it does Europeans or North Americans.

ZU’LU, or AMAZULU, is the name of that portion of the Kaffir race who inhabit Natal and the region north-east of it, until they gradually merge into the mere negro of the east coast, north of the Zambesi. The Kaffir organization appears to hold an intermediate place between that of the negro and a higher type; and as we go south and west, from the swamps and malaria of Delagoa Bay and Sofala to the more healthy and bracing regions of Natal and Independent Kaffraria, the Kaffir features appear, as it were, to grow more refined—the mouth protrudes less, the lips are less thick, and the nose assimilates more to that of the European, although the distinguishing type of woolly hair may still continue.

The Z. Kaffir is a far more amiable savage than his brother the Amakosa of the Cape frontier districts. He is less warlike and predatory, more industrious, and far more willing to act in the capacity of a farm-laborer or domestic servant. In language, customs, habits, &c., although certain tribal and local differences occur, yet they may be called common to all the nation, as a Z. Kaffir has no difficulty in understanding a native of British Kaffraria; and his views of a future state, purchase of wives, &c., are pretty similar. The Z. is by nature social, light of heart, and cheerful; his affections are gentle, steady, and enduring; his passions are, however, strong, and called out when in a state of war. He is comparatively chaste; crimes which stain European or Eastern civilization are unknown to him. He is hospitable and honest, yet greedy and stingy; he is kind to his own family, yet cruel to dumb animals; and whatever the better nature of his impulses may be, yet when his great chief commands war, he is converted into a demon. He is proud, and very easily can distinguish between an English gentleman and the loafing tribe with which too many of our colonies are afflicted. The writer of this article, by the exercise of a little kindness and firmness, has experienced the most utter devotion from individuals of the Kaffir race generally. Their reasoning powers are good, and with an improved education, a Z. rationalist might not disgrace a chair in the Sorbonne. It is from the Z. country, however, that those terrible tyrants who so long devastated South-eastern Africa, the chiefs Chaka, Dingaan, Moselikatze, &c. issued. The training of their subjects to a peculiar mode of warfare spread desolation and havoc for many years amongst the Betjuana and other tribes of the interior, until eventually these mighty chiefs with their thousands of followers, fighting, like Homer’s heroes, hand to hand, armed with stabbing assagais and shields of ox-hide, the colors of which distinguished the different regiments they were formed into, melted way with broken power into comparative insignificance before the terrible rifles of a few hundred emigrant Dutch Boers, who, in their turn, gave way to the energetic action of the British authorities (see natal). The Zulus, although they have very often serious intestine wars amongst themselves, have generally lived on friendly terms with the Natal colonists. That their warlike qualities have not decayed was sufficiently shown in the war that broke out in 1879 between England and Ketchwayo (Cetewayo), the Zulu king. Within a week or two after the British forces crossed the Natal frontier, the Zulus inflicted a severe blow on the invaders by surrounding a camp at Isandhlwana and annihilating the defenders. They repulsed several attacks on their strongholds; but after the British had received reinforcements, were defeated at Ginghilovo, and completely broken by Lord Chelmsford at Ulundi on the 3d July. The king was captured shortly afterwards, and deported to Cape Town.

The Zulu country was divided amongst twelve chiefs (having four British residents). But in 1883, Ketchwayo was reinstated in the central portion of his kingdom, under certain restrictions, with an English resident. The north-east part of his former domains is under a chief independent of the Zulu king; and on the south, adjoining the Natal border, another strip of territory is reserved for the chiefs unwilling to come again under Ketchwayo’s authority (one of whom, John Dunn, is of English blood).

A number of missionary societies of the Wesleyan, American, Norwegian, and Episcopal churches labor amongst these tribes. Considerable interest was some time ago provoked with regard to Bishop Colenso’s peculiar views for evangelizing these heathens; and Colenso’s Zulu was for a while almost as famous as Macaulay’s New Zealander.

The Amafengu tribe, now settled along the Cape frontier, are a broken tribe of Zulus, driven far to the south-west by Chaka or Dingaan. then reduced to slavery by the Amakosa Kaffirs, and freed by Sir B. Durban in the Kaffir war of 1834—1835. The principal Z. tribes are the Amazulu, the Amahute, Amazwazi, and Amatabele. The last emigrated far northwards to the mountains which separate the basins of the Limpopo and Zambesi.

THEO’DOLITE (Gr. theao, I see, dolichos, long), an instrument much employed in land-surveying for the measurement of angles horizontal and vertical, is neither more or less than an altitude and azimuth instrument, proportioned and constructed so as to be conveniently portable. Like all instruments in very general use. the variations in its construction are almost numberless; but its main characteristics continue unaltered in all forms. It consists essentially of two concentric circular plates of copper, brass, or other material (the upper plate, or upper horizontal, either being smaller, and let into the lower, or lower horizontal, or the rim of the lower raised round the outside of the upper), moving round a common axis, which, being double, admits of one plate moving independently of the other. Upon the upper horizontal rise two supports, bearing a cross bar, which is the axis of a vertical circle moving in a plane at right angles to the former. This latter circle either has a telescope fixed concentric with itself, or a semicircle is substituted for the circle, and the telescope is laid above, and parallel to its diameter. The circles, as their names denote, are employed in the measurement of horizontal and vertical angles. For these purposes, the outer of the horizontal circles is graduated, and the inner carries the index-point and the Verniers (q. v.); the vertical circle is also graduated, and the graduations are generally read off by an index-point and vernier firmly attached to the supports. The upper horizontal is furnished with two levels placed at right angles to each other for purposes of adjustment, and has a compass-box let into it at its center. The stand consists of a circular plate supported on three legs, and connected with the lower horizontal by means of a ball-and-socket joint; the horizontal adjustment of the instrument being effected by means of three or four (the latter number is the better) upright screws placed at equal distances between the plates.

The telescope is so fixed as to be reversible, and the adjustments are in great part similar to those of other telescopic instruments, but are too numerous and minute to be here detailed. Both horizontal plates being made, by means of the screws and levels, truly level, the telescope is pointed at one object, and the horizontal angles read off; it is then turned to another object and the readings-off from the graduated circle again performed; and by the difference of the readings, the angular horizontal deviation is given; and when vertical angles are required, the readings are taken from the vertical circle in a similar manner.

INDIAN TERRITORY, a country reserved by the government of the United States for the Indian tribes removed west of the Mississippi, and those living there. It lies between 33° 30′ and 37° N. lat., and 94° 20′ and 103° W. long., being 370 miles long-by 220 wide, with an area of 74,127 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by Kansas, E. by Arkansas, S. and W. by Texas, from which it is separated on the south by the Red River. It is a beautiful country, with vast fertile plains, watered by innumerable streams, including the Red River, the Arkansas, and their branches. The climate is genial, producing cotton, tobacco, maize, wheat, and fruits. Coal, iron, zinc, copper, salt, and petroleum springs abound. Its population of about 70,000 consists of Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and remnants of smaller tribes. The principal tribes are in a high state of civilization, and, except the Seminoles, all possess a written constitution and code of laws. In 1880, there were nearly 100 schools maintained among the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws. Many of the Indians cultivate large plantations.

MONSOO’N (Malayan, Musim) is derived from the Arabic word Mausim, a set time or season of the year, and is applied to those winds prevailing in the Indian Ocean which blow from the southwest from April to October, and from the opposite direction, or north-east, from October to April. The existence of these winds was made known to the Greeks during the Indian expeditions of Alexander, and by this knowledge, Hippalus was emboldened to sail across the open sea to Muzeris, the emporium of Malabar. The monsoons depend, in common with all winds whether regular or irregular, on the inequality of heat at different places and the earth’s rotation on its axis; but more particularly they are occasioned by the same circumstances which produce the trade-winds and the land and sea breezes, being, in fact, the combined effect of these two sets of causes.

If the equatorial regions of the earth were entirely covered with water, the trade-winds (see TRADE-WINDS)would blow constantly from the north-east in the north, and from the south-east in the south of the torrid zone, with a belt of variable winds and calms interposed; the whole system, following the sun’s course, moving northward from December to June, and southward from June to December. But, especially in the eastern hemisphere, large tracts of land stretch into the tropics, and give rise to the extensive atmospheric disturbances for which those parts of the earth are so remarkable. During the summer half of the year, the north of Africa and the south of Asia are heated to a higher degree than the Indian Ocean, while Australia and South Africa are much colder. As the heated air of Southern Asia expands and rises, and the colder air from the south flows in to supply its

place, a general movement of the atmosphere of the Indian Ocean; sets in towards the north, thus giving a southerly direction to the wind; but as the air comes from those parts of the globe which revolve quicker to those which revolve more slowly, an easterly direction will be communicated to the wind; and the combination of these two directions results in the south-west monsoon, which prevails there in summer.

Since, during winter, South Asia is colder than the Indian Ocean, which, again, in its turn, is colder than South Africa, a general motion of the atmosphere sets in towards the south and west. As this is in the same direction as the ordinary trade-wind,. the effect in winter is not to change the direction, but only to increase the velocity of the trade-wind. Thus, while south of the equator, owing to the absence of sufficiently large tracts of land, the south-east trade-winds prevail throughout the year; on the-north of the equator we find the south-vest monsoon in summer; and the north-east in winter; it being only in summer and north of the equator that great changes are effected in the direction of the trade-wind.

Similar, though less strongly-marked monsoons prevail off the-coasts of Upper Guinea in Africa, and Mexico in America. The east and west direction of the shores of these countries, or the large heated surfaces to the north of the seas which wash their coasts, produce, precisely as in the case of South Asia, a southwest monsoon in summer. As might have been expected, the monsoon off the coast of Mozambique is easterly, and that off the coast of West Australia north-westerly. The trade-winds also suffer considerable change in their direction on the coasts of Brazil, Peru, Lower Guinea, &c. These, though sometimes considered monsoons, are not truly such, for they do not change their directions periodically, so as to be opposite to each other, like true monsoons, but only veer through a few points of the compass. For a fuller account of these partial deflections, see TRADE-WINDS.

In April, the north-east monsoon changes into the south-west; and in October, the south-west into the north-east. These times depending on the course of the sun, and consequently varying" with the latitude, are called the breaking up of the monsoons, "and are generally accompanied by variable winds, by intervals of calm, and by furious tempests and hurricanes.

Monsoons, when compared with the trade-winds, will be found to play a most beneficial and important part in the economy of the-globe. Their greater velocity, and the periodical changes which take place in their direction, secure increased facility of commercial intercourse between different countries. But the full benefits following in their train are not seen unless they be considered in their relation to the rainfall of Southern Asia. Indeed, the fertility of the greater part of this fine region is entirely due to the monsoons; for if the north-east trade-wind had prevailed there throughout the year, Central and Western India, and many other places, would only have been scorched and barren saharas. The rainfall of India depends entirely on the monsoons. The coast of Malabar has its rainy season during the south-west monsoon,. which brings thither the vapors of the ocean. On the Coromandel coast, on the other hand, it is the north-east monsoon which-brings the rain from the Bay of Bengal. The two coasts of Hindustan have therefore their seasons reversed, the dry season of the one corresponding with the wet season of the other.

JAPA’N (native name, Nihon or Nippon, i.e., Land of the Rising Sun, or Dai (i.e., Great) Nihon or Nippon), a very ancient island-empire of Eastern Asia, long remarkable for the proud isolating policy of its rulers, and now claiming special consideration, on account both of its recent renewed relations with the civilized world, and of the wonderful changes that, during the last few years have been in progress in the country. The name Japan is a corruption of Marco Polo’s Zipangu.

Japan Proper comprehends four large islands, viz., Honshiu (the Japanese mainland), Shikokŭ, Kiushiu, and Yezo, and extends from 31� to 45� 30′ N. lat. The empire of J.�the area of which has been estimated at near 150,000 sq. miles�includes, in addition to the above, nearly 4000 small islands, among Which are the Liu Kin (’ Loo Choo’) and Kurile groups, and is situated between 24��50� 40′ N. lat., and 124��156� 38′ E. long. It is bounded on the N. by the Sea of Okhotsk, on the E. by the North. Pacific Ocean, on the S. by the eastern Sea of China, and on the W. by the Sea of Japan. In 1880, the population of J. was. 34,358,404.

Physical Features.�The islands of J. appear to be of volcanic origin, and that part of the Pacific on which they rest is still intensely affected by volcanic action. Earthquakes occur very frequently in J., although certain parts of the country are exempt. . is one of the most mountainous countries in the world. Its plains and valleys with their foliage surpassing in richness that of any other extra-tropical region, its Arcadian hill-slopes and forest-clad heights, its alpine peaks towering in weird grandeur above torrent-dinned ravines, its lines of foam-fringed headlands, with a thousand other charms, give it a claim to be considered one of the fairest portions of the earth. The sublime cone of the sacred Fuji san (’Matchless Mountain’), an extinct or rather dormant volcano, rises from the sea to a height of 12,365 feet. On-tak�-san and Yari-ga-tak� (each 10,000 feet), Tat�-yama (9500), Yatsu-ga-dak� (9000), Haku-san (8590), Asama-yama (active volcano, 8260), with many other scarcely lower peaks, rise in Honshiu. The three other large islands also abound in mountains, though of less elevation. Yezo has no fewer than eight active volcanoes. Throughout the empire there are many solfataras, and sulphurous springs well up from hundreds of volcanic valleys. The plains, most of the valleys, and many of the lower hills, are highly cultivated; nevertheless, the area of forest is said to be four times as great as that of the cultivated land. Lakes are not very numerous; but there are countless rivers, most of which, however, are too impetuous to admit of navigation. The harbors are spacious and deep, but not numerous, considering the great length of the coast-line.

Climate.�The different parts of J. differ widely in climatic conditions. Leaving out the northern and southern extremes, at T�kiy� (Yedo) we find the annual average temperature to be 57.7� Fahr., while in winter the mercury occasionally falls to 16.2�, and in summer it may rise to 96�; at Nagasaki, the lowest winter temperature is 23.2�; at Hakodate, the annual extremes are 2� and 84�. The constantly hot weather begins only about the end of Jane, and terminates usually in the middle of September. Spring and autumn are exceedingly agreeable seasons. The ocean current known as the Kuroshiwo (’Black Stream’) considerably modifies the climate of the S.E. coast; thus, while snow seldom Its more than 5 inches deep at Tokiyo, in the upper valleys of Kaga, near the west coast, less than 1� further north, 18 and 20 it are common. The rainfall varies much in different years, it is considerably greater than on the neighboring continent. o month passes without rain; but it is most plentiful in summer, especially at the beginning and the close of the hot seasons, when laudations frequently occur. N. and W. winds prevail in win-ir, and S. and E. in summer. The violent revolving storms called typhoons are liable to occur in June, July, or September. Thunderstorms are neither common nor violent, and autumn fogs are equally rare.

Vegetable Productions-�In Hodgson’s Japan will be found a systematic catalogue of Japanese flora by Sir William Hooker. We can mention only a few of the most noteworthy trees and plants. Chestnut, oak (both deciduous and evergreen), pine, beech, elm, cherry, dwarf-oak, elder, sycamore, maple, cypress, and many other trees of familiar name abound. The grandest forests of pine, and oaks of prodigious size, grow in Yezo; but the Rhus vernicifera or lacquer-tree, the Laurus camphora or camphor-tree, the Broussonetia papyrifera or paper-mulberry�the ark and young twigs of which are manufactured by the Japanese into paper�and the Rhus succedanea or vegetable wax-tree of J., are among the remarkable and characteristic trees of the country. Bamboos, palms, including sago-palms, and 150 species of evergreen trees likewise flourish. Thus, the vegetation of the tropics is strangely intermingled with that of the temperate or frigid zone; the tree-fern, bamboo, banana, and palm grow side by side with the pine, the oak, and the beech, and conifer� in great variety. The camellia, the Paulownia, and the chrysanthemum are conspicuous amongst its indigenous plants. Nymph�as and Parnassia fill the lakes and morasses. The tobacco-plant, the a-shrub, the potato, rice, wheat, barley, and maize are all cultivated. The flora of J. bears a remarkable resemblance to that of he North American continent.

Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Japanese. They are try careful farmers, and their farms are models of order and neatness. They bestow great care upon manures, and thoroughly understand cropping and the rotation of crops. The soil is not naturally fertile, being mostly volcanic or derived from igneous rocks, but is made very productive by careful manuring. It grows tea, cotton, rice (the staple production), wheat, maize, buck-wheat, millet, potatoes, turnips, beans, peas, &c. The rice harvest commences in October. Wheat is sown in drills in November and December, and reaped in May and June. Flails and winnowing machines, similar to those used in England, are common.

Animals.�Wild animals scarcely exist in Japan. A few wolves, fixes, and wild boars still roam in the north of Honshiu. Wild deer are protected by law. The principal domesticated animals are horses, of which there is an indigenous race; oxen and cows, used only as beasts of burden; and dogs, held in superstitious veneration by the people. Birds are very numerous, and include two kinds of pheasants, wild-fowl, herons, cranes, and many species common both to Europe and Asia. There are few reptiles; and of insects, white ants, winged grasshoppers, and several beautiful varieties of moth are conspicuous.

Mineralogy.�The mineral resources of J. are being increasingly developed. In 1880 there were six principal mines worked by foreign methods and machinery. Gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, sulphur, coal, basalt, felspar, greenstones, granites red and gray, rock-crystal, agate, carnelian, amber, scoriae and pumice-stone, talc, alum, &c., are found in greater or less quantities. Coal-beds extend from Nagasaki to Yezo. The supply of sulphur is almost inexhaustible, and of wonderful purity. But little revenue has yet been derived from the government mines, on account of the necessarily great outlay in the first instance for costly machinery, and the heavy expenses in sinking shafts and constructing furnaces, with other improvements.

Inhabitants.�Ethnologists have referred the Japanese to different types of mankind : Latham classifies them as Turanians; Pickering, as Malays; Prichard, as belonging to the same type as the Chinese; and in the narrative of the United States’ Expedition, they are ranked as a branch of the Tartar family. In Yezo there are about 12,000 Ainos, a hairy race wholly distinct from the Japanese, and in all probability a remnant of the aborigines of Japan. Probably the present Japanese are a mixed race, the issue of the intermarriage of victorious settlers from the Asiatic continent with Malays in the south and Ainos in the north. Physically the Japanese is distinguished by an oval head and face, rounded frontal bones, a high forehead, narrow and often slightly oblique eyes�the irides of a brown-black color, the eyebrows heavy and arched. The complexion varies from a deep copper color to the fairness of western nations, but is more frequently of a light-olive tint. The expression of the face is mild

�

�

and animated. The Japanese ‘ are a people of great qualities and exaggerated defects. They are honest, ingenious, courteous, clean, frugal, animated by a strong love of knowledge, endowed with a wonderful capacity of imitation, with deep self-respect, and with a sentiment of personal honor far beyond what any other race has ever reached. On the other hand, they are fickle, prone to self-conceit, and, especially in the lower classes, deeply tainted with licentiousness. The town costume of the Japanese gentleman consists of a loose silk robe extending from the neck to the ankles, but gathered in at the waist, round which is fastened a girdle of brocaded silk. Over this is worn a loose, wide-sleeved jacket or spencer, decorated with the wearer’s armorial device. A cylindrical cap made of bamboo and silk, white stockings, and neat straw sandals, complete the attire. European costume has been assumed by the government as the official dress; and, although the native costume still prevails among the people generally, such European articles as boots, hats, flannel shirts, &c., are coming more and more into favor as comfortable additions to it. A head entirely shaven is the distinctive mark of priests: in others, the hair used to be shaved off about three inches in front, combed up from the back and sides, and glued into a tuft at the top of the head; but the more natural European mode is now fashionable. The hair of the women is more abundant, but otherwise their dress very much resembles that of the men. In the country, a short cotton gown is often the only clothing, and in summer the lower classes go almost in a state of nudity. The women paint and powder their skin, but consider it barbarous to wear such jewels as earrings.

Manners and Customs.�Many of the customs once characteristic of J. have, since the abolition of feudalism in 1868, become obsolete. Among these is seppuku or hara-kiri (i.e., ‘belly-cut’), for long a legalized mode of suicide. Social barriers, lately almost insurmountable, have been broken down, and some of the most influential posts are now held by men who have risen from the ranks. The social position of women is more favorable than in most pagan countries. Ladies of the upper classes deem it proper to keep themselves in considerable seclusion; but this feeling is becoming somewhat modified. Girls attend the elementary schools as well as boys, and ladies’ colleges have been established under the immediate patronage of the Empress Haruku. Polygamy is not allowed, but concubinage is common. Marriages are arranged by the friends of both parties; among the upper classes, the custom of affiancing children prevails. Formerly, when a maiden married, her teeth were blackened and her eyebrows shaven off; this custom is discountenanced by the Empress, and is gradually being discarded. Prostitution is very prevalent. It is no uncommon thing for a dutiful daughter to sell herself for a term of years to the proprietor of a house of ill-fame, in order to retrieve her father’s fallen fortunes. When she returns, no stigma attaches to her; rather is she honored for her filial devotion. Licensed houses of ill-fame are now confined to certain districts. Street-walking is virtually unknown. Hot baths are a great institution in Japan. Formerly persons of both sexes bathed together; and this primitive custom (in which the simple-minded Japanese sees no impropriety) still prevails in rural districts, although forbidden in the cities. Until lately, the only vehicles in J. were two kinds of palanquin, viz., the kago and the norimon; but in all the more level districts, these have now been superseded by the jin-riki-sha (’ man-power-carriage’), a sort of two-wheeled perambulator drawn by one or two men. Horse-carriages are novel to J., and as yet are rarely seen except in and around the treaty ports. In most of the more mountainous regions, the roads are impracticable even for jin-riki-sha, and the only means of conveyance are kago and pack-horses. The Japanese are essentially a pleasure-loving people. The theater forms one of their chief attractions. They take great delight in visiting public gardens, and admiring the blossoms of spring or the glorious tints of autumn. Professional musicians and dancers, principally young women remarkable for their personal attractions, are in constant request for parties. The floors of Japanese houses are laid with thick, soft, closely-fitting mats, on which the inmates squat, eat, and sleep; these are kept scrupulously clean, the shoes or clogs always being removed on entering. The time of greatest festivity is the New Year, now held contemporaneously with our own. Wrestling, jugglery, and archery are favorite sports; and in the game of go, somewhat like our chess, they attain great skill. For the dead great regard is paid, the ancestral tablet being always placed in the family shrine with the household god. Fish and rice are the staple food of the people, and tea and sake (rice-beer) their beverages.

Language.�In J. there arc two systems of writing: (1) The ideographic system of Chinese hieroglyphic symbols, which dates from the 3d c. AD.; and (2) the phonetic syllabarium, a modification of this, consisting of 47 characters, and a few supplementary monosyllabic sounds. Prior to either of these, some antique form of writing, now consigned to oblivion, is supposed to have existed.

The phonetic alphabet, invented about the year 810 A.D. is known as the Hiragana form of character. In process of time, this system was rendered more complex by the addition of variations, and this led, apparently, to the introduction of another and simpler alphabet, entirely without variants, and known as the Katakana character. Both these phonetic systems are written in perpendicular columns. It is not a little remarkable that the Chinese ideographic symbols retain their ascendancy over the phonetic alphabets, and are adopted almost exclusively for diplomatic documents and the higher class of books.

There is no similarity whatever between the spoken languages of China and J.; the latter�one of the softest tongues out of Italy� is not monosyllabic, but what has been called agglutinate.

The literature of J. is abundant and various, and includes works on history and science, encyclop�dias, poetry, prose fiction, and translations of European works. Besides original writings, the Japanese have adopted the whole circle of Chinese Confucian literature; the Chinese classics indeed form the basis of their literature, system of ethics, and type of thought. The present assimilation of Western ideas is leading to a proportionate neglect of Chinese philosophy; but as yet there is no tendency to discard the cumbrous system of orthography imported from China.

Religions of Japan-�There are two religions in J.�Shinto or Kami no Michi (’ The way of the gods’), the indigenous faith; and Buddhism introduced from China in 552 A.D.�1. Shintoism : The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are ‘ the absence of an ethical and doctrinal code, of idol-worship, of priestcraft, and of any teachings concerning a future state; and the deification of heroes, emperors, and great men, together with the worship of certain forces and objects in nature.’ The principal divinity is the sun-goddess Amaterasŭ, from whom the Mikado is held to be descended.

After the Restoration, the government attempted to free Shintoism from the Buddhist innovations which had contaminated it, and to revive it in its pure form as the national religion. Shinto temples are singularly destitute of ecclesiastical paraphernalia. A metal mirror generally stands on the altar, but even this is a Buddhist innovation. The spirit of the enshrined deity is supposed to be in a case, which is exposed to view only on the day of the deity’s annual festival. The worship consists merely in washing the face in a font, striking a bell, throwing a few cash into the money-box, and praying silently for a few seconds; nevertheless long pilgrimages to famous shrines and to the summits of sacred mountains are often taken to accomplish this. Shintoism is rather an engine of government than a religion; it keeps its hold on the

�

�

masses chiefly through its being interwoven with reverence for ancestors.�2. Buddhism: Of Buddhists there are no fewer than thirty-five sects. The monks have assumed the functions of priests, and Japanese Buddhist worship presents striking resemblances to that of the Romish Church. The history of the Buddhist monasteries, too, often reads remarkably like that of the corresponding institutions in medieval Europe. Notwithstanding the increased patronage recently bestowed upon Shintoism by the government, Buddhism is still the dominant religion among the people. The most popular, as well as the wealthiest and most enlightened, of the Buddhist denominations, is the Monto or Shinshiu sect, which recognizes one God in Amida Buddha (only, however, an abstract principle personified), discountenances asceticism and clerical celibacy, and cultivates preaching, the favorite topic being the duty of self-reliance. It would be a mistake, however, to suppose that a clear line can be drawn between adherents of Buddhism and Shintoism respectively; in the popular mind the two faiths are so blended that the temples of both are frequented without much discrimination. The better educated classes are mostly agnostics, striving more or less to regulate their lives by the maxims of Confucius.

Many Japanese temples are magnificent specimens of architecture in wood; they are remarkable for their vast tent-like roofs and their exquisite wood-carving.

Government and Finance.�The Mikado is an absolute sovereign. He administers his affairs through a supreme council, consisting of the premier, vice-premier, and the heads of the great departments of state. This is the actual government. Below this, a legislative council of eminent men, under the presidency of an imperial prince, has the power of elaborating the laws determined upon by the supreme council, but cannot initiate any legislate measure without its consent. There is also an assembly of provincial governors, but it meets but seldom, and is purely consultative. The chief departments of state are: Foreign Affaire, Finance, War, Marine, Education, Public Works, Justice, Colonization of Yezo, Imperial Household, and the Interior. For administrative purposes, J. is divided into 3 Fu (Tokiyo, Kiyoto, and Osaka), 35 Ken or prefectures, each with a governor responsible: to the minister of the interior. A bureaucratic has thus taken the place of the old feudal government. Provincial assemblies, composed of officers elected by the people, have been instituted; the functions of these are at present very limited.

Great progress is being made in finance, education, and public works, as well as the reconstruction of both army and navy. 1 army has been equipped and disciplined on European models by a commission of French officers; it numbers 35,560 men in time of peace, and 50.230 when on a war footing, besides a reserve of 20,000. In 1880 the navy had 27 vessels of all classes. The western calendar (excepting only the names of the months, which are represented by numbers) has, by a recent decree, been adopted; and a national code of laws, based on the Code Napoleon, has been drawn up. Praiseworthy attention has been paid to hygiene; under the central and district boards of health, every town or village has its popularly elected sanitation committee. In 1880 the public debt was �70,000,000, and there was a reserve fund of �10,265,000. The estimated total receipts for the year 1880-81 amounted to �11,986,700, and the expenditure was expected to balance the revenue.

Education, Art.�A university and several special scientific colleges have been established, each with a staff of foreign professors; normal and secondary schools exist in all the more important towns; and there is no village of appreciable size without primary school. More than 500 state students have been sent Europe and America. The education report for 1877, published in 1879, gives the number of elementary schools at 25,459, (attended by 1,594,792 boys and 568,220 girls Learned scientific societies have been formed. Newspapers are widespread. In the mechanical arts, the Japanese have attained to great excellence, especially in metallurgy, and in the manufacture of porcelain, lacquer ware, and silk fabrics; indeed, in some of these departments, works of art are produced, so exquisite in design and

�

�

execution, as to more than rival the best products of Europe. The Japanese have long understood lithocrome-printing. Their drawings of animals and figures generally are wonderfully graphic, i, and true to nature; but in landscapes they fail, from erroneous perspective; and of the art of painting in oils they were, until lately, entirely ignorant.

Commerce.�J. had in 1880 about 80 miles of railway, and great progress has of late been made in the construction of roads. The magnificent fleet of the Mitsu Bishi (’ Three Diamonds’) Steam-ship Company connects the different ports with one another and with China. There is an admirable system of lighthouses and other aids to navigation. In 1878-79, 55,270,402 articles were exchanged by post; 249,429 money-orders were issued in the postal department, representing �740,876; and there were 595 post-office savings-banks. Every considerable town has at least one bank. The basis of the money-system is the yen, equal to the American trade-dollar. The imperial mint at Osaka is larger and better equipped than the Royal Mint in London. Steam-wrought Machinery is being increasingly used, and all kinds of foreign scientific processes are being put in operation.

The commercial intercourse of J. is now carried on mostly with Great Britain and the United States of America. In 1881, the total imports from all countries amounted to �6,572,078, and the total exports to �6,271,215.

The following table shows the extent of the trade by exhibiting the value of the total exports from Japan to Great Britain, and of the total imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Japan, during the five years 1874�1878 :

�

�

The principal item of export from J. to Great Britain is raw silk, valued in 1880 at �204,202; next in value come wax, rice, tobacco, and tea. The staple British import is cotton goods, lined in 1880 at �2,007,850; also woollen fabrics and iron.

History.�To understand something of the government and institutions of J., past and present, it will be necessary to glance at its history and political landmarks. Here we find an emperor, whose Dynasty began to reign 2532 years ago, or 660 b.c. Its founder, Jimmu Tenno, was contemporary with Nebuchadnezzar; and in 168, after a duration of twenty-five centuries, it threw off the oppression and decrepitude of 676 years, and in the person of Mutsuhito, the present Mikado or emperor (the 122d of his race), entered upon a new and promising career. The principal landmarks of Japanese political history are briefly as follows: A time of anarchy and faction on the one side, and a succession of feeble sovereigns on the other, enabled Yoritomo, the Shogun or generalissimo (from Ta-tsiang-kiun, the Chinese term for ‘ the great chief or commander of the army ‘)�or Tycoon (Chinese Tai Kun, i.e., ‘ Great Lord’), as he is called in recent treaties, to usurp the supreme authority. This occurred in 1192 A.D.; but the creation of a Shogun by the Mikado dates from 85 B.C. This high officer was subsequently known to Europeans as the temporal emperor, and to the Mikado they assigned purely spiritual functions; but the Japanese themselves recognized one sovereign only, viz., the Mikado, who held his court at Kiyoto, or Miyako, while his rival in Yedo acted as real sovereign, at the safe distance of 300 miles; and the Shogunate became henceforth a permanent institution. It might now be said that the Shogun governed, but did not reign; while the Mikado reigned, but did not govern; though three times a year he received the homage of his all-powerful subject. He even continued nominally the sole temporal emperor, though pensioned by the Shogun, and deprived of all real authority. In 1603 the Shogun Tokugawa Iyeyasu (the ‘ illustrious ‘) organized a government which secured to the empire a peace of 200 years. He founded likewise a permanent succession, and his descendants reigned at Yedo till 1868. His system was perfected by Iyemitsu, the third Shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty. It was his policy ‘ to preserve unchanged the condition of the native intelligence,’ ‘to prevent the introduction of new ideas,’ and to effect this he not only banished foreigners, interdicted all intercourse with them, and extirpated Christianity, but introduced that ‘ most rigid and cunningly devised system of espionage ‘ that was in full activity at the time of the Earl of Elgin’s mission, as amusingly described by Mr. Oliphant.

‘This espionage,’ says a recent Japanese writer, ‘held every one in the community in dread and suspicion; not only the most powerful daimio felt its insidious influence, but the meanest retainer was subject to its sway; and the ignoble quality of deception, developing rapidly to a large extent, became at this time a national characteristic. The daimios, who at first enjoyed an honorable position as guests at the court of Yedo, were reduced to vassalage, and their families retained as hostages for the rendition of a biennial ceremonial of homage to the Shogun. Restrictions surrounded personages of this rank until, without special permission, they were not allowed to meet each other alone.’ In 1549 St. Francis Xavier introduced the Roman Catholic religion into J., and the Portuguese (who first landed in J. in the year 1543) carried on a lucrative trade; but by-and-by the ruling powers took alarm, ordered away all foreigners, and interdicted Christianity (1624), believing that foreigners impoverished the country, while their religion struck at the root of the political and religious systems of Japan. The converts to that form of Christianity introduced by Xavier, were found to have pledged their allegiance to a foreign power- while their conduct is said to have been offensive towards the Shinto and Buddhist temples; so that in time they came to be regarded as a dangerous and anti-national class whose extirpation was essential to the well-being of the nation, and to the success of the political system then being organized or perfected by Iyemitsu. The Portuguese continued to frequent J. till 1638, when they and their religion were finally expelled; Christianity was suppressed with every cruelty, and at the cost of some 50,000 lives; its professors were murdered, and the ports closed to foreign traffic. From this date the Japanese government maintained the most rigid policy of isolation. No foreign vessels might touch at Japanese ports under any pretence. Japanese sailors wrecked on any foreign shore were with difficulty permitted to return home; while the Dutch, locked up in their factory at Deshima, might hold no communication with the mainland; and the people lived like frogs in a well, till 1853, when they were rudely awakened from their dream of peace and security by Commodore Perry steaming into the harbor of Yokohama, with a squadron of United States’ war-vessels. He extorted a treaty from the frightened Shogun (31st March 1854), and J., after a withdrawal of 216 years, entered once more the family of nations. Other countries slowly followed the example of the United States: Russia and the Netherlands in 1855; our own treaty followed in 1858; that with France in 1859; with Portugal in 1860; with Prussia and the Zollverein in 1861; with Switzerland in 1864; with Italy in 1866; and with Denmark in 1867. By these the seven ports of Nagasaki, Kanagawa (for this Yokohama has been substituted). Hiyogo (or Kobe), Yedo (now called Tokiyo), Osaka, Hakodate, and Niigata were opened to foreign commerce.

It will thus be seen that ‘ the history of the empire of the Rising Sun is divisible into four distinct periods : the first, which ends with the landing of the Portuguese in 1543. is purely local; the second, which extends from 1543 to 1638, includes the story of St. Francis Xavier, the trade with Portugal, the persecutions, and the final expulsion of Europeans; the third, from 1638 to 1854. is distinguished by the Dutch monopoly, and the resolute exclusion of all foreigners; in the fourth, since 1854, J. has once more be-come accessible to everybody.’

In the J. of 1854, we went back to Europe of the 12th c.�to the feudalism of England under the Plantagenets. An aristocratic caste of a few hundred nobles�the Daimiyo or territorial princes of J. (278 in number)�ruled large provinces with despotic and almost independent authority; their incomes reaching in one or two instances to �800,000. By signing the Perry treaty at all, the Shogun gave deep offence to the Daimiyos, and by signing it without the sanction of the Mikado, he committed an act of treason which led to all the confusion, violence, and disaster of the next few years, and ultimately in 1868 to the complete overthrow of his own power and the restoration of the Mikado to his rightful position as actual ruler of the empire. For long, not a few of the most powerful Diamiyos had been dissatisfied with the Sho-gun’s position, and these gladly availed themselves of the pretext now furnished for opposing him. All possible means were taken to bring him into complications with the ambassadors at his court; and to this motive, rather than to any hatred of foreigners, are to be ascribed the numerous assassinations which darkened the period immediately prior to 1868. Every weakening of his power was a step gained towards his overthrow and the longed-for unification of the empire in the hands of the Mikado. At length the Shogun resigned; but it was only after a sharp civil war in the winter of 1867-68 that his power was completely crushed. At the outset of the struggle, the imperial party were decidedly retrogressive in their political ideas, but before its close various circumstances convinced them that without intercourse with foreign nations the greatness which they desired for their country could not be achieved; and when they got into power, they astonished the world by the thoroughness with which they broke loose from the old traditions and entered on a course of enlightened reformation. Recognizing Yedo as really the center of the nation’s life, they resolved to make it the capital; but the name Yedo being distasteful through its associations with the Shogunate, they renamed the city Tokiyo, or Tokei�i.e., Eastern Capital. Here the Mikado established his court, abandoning forever that life of seclusion which had surrounded his ancestors with a halo of semi-divinity, but deprived them of all real power. The venerable city of Kiyoto was at the same time renamed Saikiyo or Saikei�i.e., Western Capital. The Daimiyos resigned their fiefs to the Mikado. This has been represented as a grand act of self-sacrifice on their part; but the truth is that the vast majority of them had come to be mere fain�ants, leaving the government of their territories to the more energetic of their retainers; and it was by a number of the latter that this, in common with the other changes connected with the Restoration, was effected.

Since 1868, Japan has given several remarkable manifestations of self-consciousness. The attitude she assumed towards Corea; her annexation in 1879 of the Liu Kiu Islands, notwithstanding China’s remonstrances and threats; her continual protest against the unpalatable extra-territoriality clauses in the treaties, which declare European and American residents amenable to their own, and not to the Japanese, courts of law�prove that she is far from having lost that bold independence of spirit which has always characterized her.

See K�mpfer, History of Japan (1727); works by Alcock (1863), L. Oliphant (1859), Mossman (1873), Adams (1874), Arinori Moro (New York, 1873), Griffis (New York, 1876); The French works of Humbert and Bousquet; Mitford’s Tales of Old Japan; Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan; Mittheilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft; Black, Young Japan (Shanghai, 1880) ; Mounsey, The Satsuma Rebellion (1879); Sir E. J. Reed, Japan (1880); Miss Bird (Mrs. Bishop), Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (1880): Rein, Japnn nach Iteisen und Studein dargestellt (1881); W. G-. Dixon, Land of the Morning (1882); Chamberlain, The Classical Poetry of Japan (1880); Dickens, The Loyal League (a Japanese play, 1880); Cfenji Monogatari (the most famous Japanese romance, Eng. transl., 1882). For the language, see the grammars of the written and spoken languages by Hoffmanu and by Aston, and the dictionaries by Hepburn, and by Satow and Ishibashi.

TU’RKEY, or the OTTOMAN EMPIRE (q. v.), includes large portions of the continents of Europe. Asia, and Africa, and consists of Turkey Proper, which is under the direct rule of the sultan, and of several dependent and tributary states. The arrangements sanctioned by the Berlin Congress in 1878 have largely changed the size and organization of the empire. Turkish affairs could not soon be expected to settle into equilibrium; and on most subjects reliable statistical results are at best approximate. In any case, it is necessary for an understanding of Turkey as it now is, to begin with Turkey as it was before the last momentous war with Russia.

The Almanach de Gotha of 1878 gave the following estimates of the area and population of the Turkish empire before the sweep-tug changes agreed to at Berlin :

Montenegro, formerly a tributary state, had been virtually independent for many years.

The population of the various provinces, even of European Turkey, has always been difficult to ascertain. The most satisfactory estimate was probably one made before the vilayet of Herzegovina was separated from Bosnia, and published in 1876 in the Vienna journal. Monatsschrift für den Orient. This was based on the Salnam6s, or official almanacs of the vilayets, and shows at the same time the distribution of the religions in the provinces, but it takes account only of the male population.

Constantinople, not included in any of the six vilayets, had a total population of 680,000. The total male population of European T., excluding the vassal provinces, was 4,976,000. The entire population of both sexes might, therefore, be assumed to exceed 10,000,000. The proportion of Non-Moslems to Moslems given above (57 to 43) probably understates the numerical predominance of the former.

Many of these estimates have of course become obsolete since the Berlin Congress of 1878 (see History of the ottoman empire). This Congress, which met primarily to revise the ‘ preliminary ‘ treaty of San Stefano, concluded between Russia and Turkey at the close of the war of 1877-78, has revolutionized the relation of the Porte to the subject Christian principalities and provinces, alienated large portions of hitherto Turkish territory, and inaugurated what must necessarily be a new era in the history of the Ottoman empire. The principal results of the Congress’s work are treated under the several heads of the states they chiefly concern (see ROUMANIA, SKRVIA, MONTENEGRO, BULGARIA, &c.), but must here be briefly summarized.

The vassal states Roumania and Servia, as well as Montenegro, were declared independent, and each obtained a change or extension of territory; Roumania. which had to yield up its portion of Bessarabia to Russia, received in compensation the Dobrudscha, cut off by a line from Silistria to Mangalia. Servia was considerably extended to the south. Montenegro received an important addition to its territory, chiefly on the Albanian side, including the port of Antivari. (Dulcigno with its district was added in 1880.) What was formerly the Turkish vilayet of the Danube, was, with the exception of the Dobrudscha, now Roumanian, made into the tributary but automatic principality of Bulgaria, its southern boundary being the Balkan range. A large territory to the south of the Balkans was organized as the separate province of Eastern Roumelia, and though remaining directly under the military and political authority of the Sultan, secured the right of having a Christian governor-general and administrative autonomy.

It was agreed that Herzegovina and Bosnia, excepting a small portion of the latter, should be occupied and administered by Austro-Hungary, and thus in large measure alienated from the Porte; Spizza and its sea-board, immediately north of Antivari, was incorporated with Dalmatia; Greece was to receive additional territory; the Congress recommending that the rectified frontier should run up the Salambria River from its mouth, cross the ridge dividing ancient Thessaly from Epirus, cut off the town of Janina so as to leave it to Greece, and descend the Kalamas River to the Ionian Sea. In Crete the reformed government promised in 1868 was to be immediately and scrupulously carried out. In Asia the changes were much less considerable; the port of Batum. henceforth to be essentially commercial, Kars and Ardahan, with a portion of Armenia, were ceded to Russia, and Khotour, east of Lake Van, to Persia; the Porte engaging to carry out at once much needed administrative reforms in Armenia and elsewhere. By the ‘conditional convention’ made in 1878 between Turkey and the United Kingdom, the English government undertook to defend the Porte’s dominions in Asia, and received in return the right to occupy and administer Cyprus. The rectification of the Greek frontier was not arranged till 1881. After endless negotiations and procrastination, which for a while seemed almost certain to lead to war, the Porte agreed to cede, and Greece to accept, a considerable portion of territory, though less than the Congress of Berlin had recommended. The new frontier gives to Greece all Thessaly south of the watershed forming the northern boundary of the valley of the Salambria (anc. Peneus), including the towns of Larissa and Trikhala; and in Epirus follows the line of the Arta River, leaving the town of Arta to Greece. The fortifications of Prevesa are to be destroyed by the Turks, and the Gulf of Arta is to be neutral.

The area and population of Turkey in Europe have now to be thus arranged :

turkey in europe, generally hilly and undulating, is traversed by a mountain system which has its origin in the Alps, enters T. at the north-west corner, and runs nearly parallel to the coast, under the names of the Dinaric Alps and Mount Pindus, as far as the Greek frontier. This range sends numerous offshoots cast an 1 west; the great eastern offshot being the Balkans (q. v.) range, with its numerous branches to north and south. The rivers of Turkey are chiefly the tributaries of the Danube; the Muritza, Strumo, Vardar; the Narenta, Drin, and Voyutza.

On the high lands, the cold is excessive in winter, owing to the north-east winds, which blow from the bleak and icy steppes of Southern Russia; and the heat of summer is almost insupportable in the western valleys. Violent climatic change is, on the whole, the ruin in European Turkey; but those districts which are sheltered from the cold winds, as the Albanian valleys, enjoy a comparatively equable temperature. The soil is for the most part very fertile; but owing to the positive discouragement of industry by the oppressive system of taxation which was long in force, little progress lias been made in the art of agriculture, and the most primitive implements are in common use. The cultivated product include most of those usual in Central and Southern Europe—viz., maize, rice, cotton, rye, barley, and millet. The mineral products are, iron in abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a little gold, but no coal. The wild animals are the wild boar, bear, wolf, wild dog, civet, chamois, wild ox, and those others which are generally distributed in Europe. The lion was formerly an inhabitant of the Thessalian Mountains.

TURKEY IN asia.—This portion of the Turkish empire is more hilly than the other. The two almost parallel ranges, Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which are the basis of its mountain-system, cover almost the whole of the peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia (q. v.), with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface into elevated plateaux, deep valleys, and enclosed plains. Prom the Taurus chain, the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel to the coast of Syria, and diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates on the Red Sea coast at Sinai. The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Ennak are the chief rivers. On the whole, Turkey in Asia is ill supplied with water; and though the mountain slopes afford abundance of excellent pasture, the plains, and many of the valleys, especially those of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Jordan, are reduced by the parching droughts of summer to the condition of sandy deserts. In ancient times, these now desert districts were preserved in a state of fertility by artificial irrigation; but during the six centuries of almost constant war which convulsed this once fair region, the canals were neglected, and have, ever since the rise of the Osmanli power, remained in an unserviceable condition. Nevertheless, the fertile portions produce abundance of wheat, barley, rice, maize, tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton; the cedar, cypress, and evergreen oak flourish on the mountain-slopes; the sycamore and mulberry on the lower hills; and the olive, fig, citron, orange, pomegranate, and vine on the low lands. The mineral products are iron, copper, lead, alum, silver, rock-salt, coal (in Syria), and limestone. The fauna includes the lion (east of the Euphrates), the hyena, lynx, panther, leopard, buffalo, wild boar, wild ass, bear, wolf, jackal, jerboa, and many others; and the camel and dromedary increase the ordinary list of domestic animals.

Possessions in Africa.—Tripoli is a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. Egypt, under its hereditary khedive, is still tributary to the Porte, though of late years the relations of the tributary ’state to its suzerain have been gradually becoming looser. Tunis, till 1881 under Turkish suzerainty, is since that year practically a French protectorate. See the articles tripoli, EGYPT, tuhis.

Industry, Manufactures, and Trade.—Notwithstanding the primitive state of agriculture in T., the extreme fertility of the soil makes ample amends for this defect. The products are wax, raisins, dried figs, olive oil, silks, red cloth, dressed goat-skins, excellent morocco, saddlery, swords of superior quality, shawls, carpets, dye-stuffs, embroidery, essential oils, attar of roses, opium, corn, plum-brandy, &c. The exports include also wool, goats’ hair, meerschaum clay, honey, sponges, drugs, madder, gall-nuts, various gums and resins, and excellent wines; the imports are manufactured goods of all kinds, glass, pottery, arms, paper, cutlery, steel, amber, &c. Previous to the recent Russian war the average annual value of the imports of Turkey in Europe was estimated at £18,500,000, and the exports at £10.000,000. Trade has dwindled to about one-third of its former dimensions since the war. The exports from the whole of the Turkish Empire to Great Britain amounted, in 1879, to £7.705,594; and the imports thence to £3,473,461. The countries which trade with T. are, in order of importance, Persia, Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Egypt, &c.; and the principal ports of the empire are Constantinople, Trebizond, and Smyrna. The mercantile marine of Turkey is small. In 1879 it comprised only some 230 sea-going ships (a dozen of them steamers), of a total tonnage of 34.800 tons. In 1878 there were over 780 miles of railway open for traffic in European Turkey; in the Asiatic part of the empire, about 175 miles.

Population.—A more heterogenous aggregation of races than that which constitutes the population of the Turkish empire can hardly be conceived. Turks, Greeks, Slavs, Roumanians, Albanians, are largely represented, besides Armenians, Jews, Circassians, &c., and Frank residents. In European Turkey, the Turks are estimated at 2,200,000; the Slavs, including the Bulgarians of the principality, at near 2,000,000; the Greeks at 1,030,000; the Albanians at 1,250,000; and the Roumanians at 1,000,000. Then in Asia there may be 4,450,000 Turks, not to speak of those in Africa; of Turkomans, 100,000; of Kurds. 1,000,000; of Syrians 190,000—all in Asia: 1,000,000 Greeks; 2,400,000 Armenians (partly in Europe); as well as Jews, Arabs (in Asia and Africa), Druses, Franks or Western Christians, Gipsies, Tartars, Circassians and other kindred races, Copts, Nubians, Berbers. &c. Of these, the Greeks and Armenians are traders; the Slavic people and the Albanians are the chief agriculturists in Europe, and the Osmanlis, Armenians, Syrians, and Druses in Asia. Of the whole population about 25,000,000 are Mohammedans, and 15,300,000 Greek and Armenian Christians.

Administration, Religion, Education.—The government of T. has always been a pure despotism; the constitution granted in 1876 and revoked in 1878 was only nominal. The power of the Sultan (also called Padishah, Grand Seignior, Khan and Hunkiar) is much limited by the sheikh-ul-islam, the chief of the Ulemas (q. v.), who has the power of objecting to any of the sultan’s decrees, and frequently possesses more authority over the people than his sovereign. The supreme head of the administration, and the next in rank to the sultan, is the grand vizier (sadri-azam), under whom are the members of the cabinet or divan (menasybi-divaniié). including the president of the council, the ministers of foreign affairs, of war, of the navy, of artillery, of the interior, of justice, of finances, and the other heads of departments of the administration. Governmental crises are frequent, especially of late; but palace intrigues are always a chief power in the state. The governors of the vilayets, or provinces, are styled valis; each vilayet is divided into sanjaks, or livas, ruled by inferior officers; each liva containing a number of cazas. or districts; and each caza a number of nahiyehs.

The provincial governors have no longer the power of life and death; and their power of practising extortion on those under their rule has been greatly diminished. The variable imposts, are, "however, farmed, but considerable restrictions are imposed on the farmers to prevent oppression. The established religion is Mohammedanism, but all other creeds are recognized and tolerated; and since 1856, a Mussulman has been free to change his. religion at pleasure, without becoming liable to capital punishment, as was formerly the case. Education was long neglected, but in 1847 a new system was introduced; and since then, schools for elementary instruction have been established throughout T.; and middle schools for higher education, and colleges for the teaching of medicine, agriculture, naval and military science, &c. Many wealthy Turks, however, send their sons to France or Britain to be educated. The newspapers published in T. are not all printed in Turkish : several of them are printed in Greek. French, and other languages.

Revenue and Debt.—The Turkish government has never published an account of the actual revenue and expenditure of the empire. Estimates were given : bat the budgets were so constructed as either to show a surplus, or to make the income and disbursements balance one another, while it was notorious that there were heavy deficits year by year. Years before the war of 1877, the Turkish exchequer was evidently on the brink of insolvency, as was manifested by the violent expedients proposed for escaping from part of its liabilities. In 1875 a decree reduced the interest payable on the debt to one-half the proper amount; and another decree in 1876 announced that no further payments would be made till the internal affairs of the empire should allow of it. The enormous expenditure of the war, and the loss of valuable provinces, have only added to the utter disorganization of Turkish nuances.

The first budget that admitted a deficit was that of 1874-75, where the revenue was given at £22,552,300, and the expenditure at £22,849,610. In 1875-76 the revenue was estimated at £19,106,352, and the expenditure at £23,143,276, In 1878-79, the revenue was guessed at £14,000,000; expenditure (with part of the war expenses). £50,000,000. At the end of 1880, the Times estimated the available annual revenue at £9,450,000, and the budget expenditure was nearly £12,000,000.

Between 1854 and 1874, when the borrowing power of T. came to an end, fourteen several loans had been contracted to meet deficiencies. At the end of that period, the foreign debt of T. amounted to £184,981,783. The internal and floating debt was stated in 1878 at £75,000,000; and the government had issued vast quantities of caimés or paper money, probably to the nominal value of £90,000,000.

Navy and Army.—The navy consisted in 1878of 15 large armor-clad vessels, 18 smaller iron-dads, and 45 other steamers. During the war of 1877-78, five iron-clads and three other steamers were sunk or taken; and since, three iron-clads have been sold to England.

In the course of the war with Russia, T. contrived to put on a war footing no less than 752.000 men, including reserve and irregular troops. At the end of the war, the disorganized remnant amounted to about 120,000 men. Extraordinary efforts have been made to keep up the army : in 1880. when it had seemed necessary to call out the reserves, the empire actually had an army of 300,000 men, well armed and fairly equipped. According to the reorganization progressing in 1880, the military forces of the empire consist of active army (nizam), two ‘bans’ of landwehr (redif), and a landsturm (mustafiz). When the reorganization is complete, there should be, on the war footing, an available force of 468,000 infantry, 64,800 cavalry, 57,600 artillery, 10,800 pioneers, and 9000 of the military train; total, 610,200 men.

AMERICA, spanish. Spanish A. is now shrunk into Porto Rico and Cuba, and belongs rather to history than to geography. Yet for many years it embraced absolutely the entire continent. Its decay was caused by the colonists becoming mere hunters after the precious metals, instead of agriculturists, and by the exclusion of all but natives of the mother country from public employment.

AMERICA, british. From the small beginnings specified in the general article above, British A., in the proper sense of the words, is now, in mere extent, at least equal to the American republic, and vastly superior to any other state in the western hemisphere�occupying, as it does, a breadth of about 90� of long, and stretching, with more or less interruption over a length of 120�. Besides touching, actually or virtually, every considerable power on the continent, England, in the new world as in the old, commands nearly every turning-point in navigation and commerce. In cooperation with Ireland, Newfoundland has linked together the two continents by submarine telegraph. Again, with the gulf and river of St. Lawrence as its main artery, British A., in its ordinary acceptation, comprising Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and the Canadas, confederated in one ‘Dominion,’ has received from nature an advantage in respect of the western mule winch even the energy of Pennsylvania and New York cannot counterbalance; Halifax, the Bermudas, and the Bahamas, are so many guardians of the gulf-stream, freighted as it is with the exports of half a continent. Jamaica forms the first link of a chain which girds the Caribbean Sea; Trinidad fronts the Orinoco, which is connected by the Cassiquiare with the Amazon; Western Guiana also, as already mentioned under another head, finds, up the Essequibo, its own communication with the ‘King of Waters;’ and, lastly, on the Atlantic side, the Falklands, with their Port Egmont, flank alike the river Plate and the Strait of Magellan. Round, again, in the Pacific, British A. exerts an influence, which is perhaps relatively greater. At the upper extremity of a coast which is, as a whole, singularly deficient in harbors, British Columbia, with its breastwork of islands from Vancouver’s upwards, and its succession of indentations, bids fair, more especially with its inexhaustible supplies of magnificent timber, to form an admirable base of operations for sustaining the maritime greatness of Britain.

AMERICA, russian, the name long given to what is now a territory of the United States, called Alaska, and which was purchased from the Russian government in 1867 for 7,200,000 dollars. It forms the north-western extremity of the American continent, and is bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, E. by British America, W. and S. by the Pacific. It was discovered by a Russian expedition conducted by Behring (q. v.), which sailed from Kamtchatka in 1741. It is little better than a vast hunting-ground, and was long held by the Imperial Fur Company, which differed but little from the imperial government itself. Its only town, or rather village, worthy of the name, is New Archangel (now called Sitka), on the island of Sitka. The most noticeable points in geography are Cape Prince of Wales, on Behring’s Strait; Kotzebue’s Sound, Norton’s Sound, peninsula of Alaska, Cook’s Inlet, and Mount St. Elias.

AME’RICANISMS are words and phrases current in the United States of America, and not current in England. These peculiarities are much more prominent in conversation than in writing; indeed, in the American writers that are usually considered classical, it is difficult to detect anything of the kind. The number of absolutely new words introduced into the English language in America is remarkably small. As an instance may be mentioned caucus, for a secret political assembly. This is a corruption of calk-home, a calker’s shed in Boston, where the patriots before the revolution had usually held their meetings. The term Yankee (an Indian corruption of the French Anglais) is another. The great body of A. consists in giving an unusual sense to existing words: as clever, in the sense of amiable, and smart for clever; wagon for a very light kind of carriage; book-store for bookseller’s shop; wilted for withered; creek for a small river, instead of a small arm of the sea.

The several divisions of the Union have their characteristic peculiarities. Thus, in the New England States�Yankeeland proper� ugly is used for ill-natured; friends for relations (so used also in Scotland); and guess for a great variety of things�to think, presume, suppose, &c. This use of guess is confined to New England; the inhabitants of New York and of the Middle States generally employ expect in the same way; while those of the Southern States reckon; and those of the Western States calculate. Several words current in the Middle States are of Dutch origin, as loafer for a vagabond, from the Dutch loopen, to run; and boss for a head workman or employer. The Southern States have fewer peculiarities than any of the other divisions. In the Western States, again, there is hardly any recognized standard of speech, and in some districts ‘ it would hardly be an exaggeration to say that every prominent person has his own private vocabulary.’ The verb to fix is made to do duty for expressing every conceivable kind of action. The vague use of this word is common all over the Union,, but in the West the abuse is carried to the extreme. Help, in the sense of servant, is common to the West and to New England, but is nearly unknown in the Middle States. The well-known phrase go a-head is a coinage of the West; it is sufficiently expressive of the leading characteristic of the American people. Posted-up in a subject, for ‘well informed,’ is one of a class of metaphors indicative of the prominence of mercantile pursuits.

The tendency to the use of slang is excessive in America, especially in the Western States. ‘Every State, every city has its own flash vocabulary; but it is in the political world that this tendency to cant phrases most develops itself. Every new party, every new modification of an old party, is bound to have at least one new name, either assumed by itself, or attached to it by its opponents.’

A variety of causes have been enumerated to account for the existence of those deviations from standard English, such as, the influence of the Indian languages; the various tongues spoken by settlers from Europe ether than English; the original provincial peculiarities of portions of the English settlers, &c. For instance, Dr. M. Shele de Vere, whose work, The English of the New World (1873), is the best on the subject,, states that the largest number of so-called Americanisms are good old English words which have become obsolete or provincial in the mother-country. But even supposing the language of the United States were at this moment in every respect identical with that of England, and to be henceforth unaffected by the importation of foreign elements, the complete identity could not be expected to continue long.

Not only do new circumstances and wants make new terms necessary, and modify the application of old, but those changes of structure which constitute the organic growth of every living tongue, are evolved more or less rapidly according to the industrial and political activity of those that speak it. To complain, then, that the English language in America, or in any of the British Colonies, should exhibit deviations from the standard of the mother-country is as unreasonable as to complain that an animal should exhibit changes in its coats or its habits when removed from one climate to another. Though it is certainly desirable that the language of the various sections of the Anglo-Saxon race should be substantially one, yet the general adoption of a new term or mode of expression by a great community may be presumed to have a cause deeper than any that can be controlled by criticism.

As the Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin do not exceed one-third of the whole population of the United States, it seems wonderful that the English language should have held its ground so well� that it should not have been completely corrupted, or even in some places extruded by other tongues. Yet there is apparently no danger of this. The original Dutch of New York has disappeared, with the exception of a very few stray words; and although French is still spoken in one-half of the city of New Orleans, it has been preserved at the expense of the speakers isolating themselves and losing their due influence. The proximity of the German-speaking population that still holds out in Pennsylvania, &c., has no sensible effect upon the language of their English-speaking neighbors; while, on. the other hand, the influence of the English is reducing the language of the Germans to a corrupt patois, swarming with English words.�See The English Language in America, in the Cambridge Essays for 1855; Bartlett’s Dictionary of Americanisms (1858).