Vickipedia

SOCIAL SCIENCE, a name that has of late years been given to the study of all that relates to the social improvement of the community. A society, called ‘The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science,’ was first organized at a meeting which was held under Lord Brougham’s auspices in July 1857, to consider the best means of uniting together all those interested in social improvement. The annual meetings have been held each year at a different place. The Association as now constituted comprises five sections—1. Jurisprudence and Amendment of the Law (subjection, Repression of Crime); 2. Education; 3. Health; 4. Economy and Trade; 5. Art. The Association aims at promoting improvement in all matters falling within these departments, by means of bringing together, for free discussion, societies and individuals interested in social problems.

sociology is the somewhat barbarous name that has of late been used to denote the study of the origin, organization, and development of human society.

ANTISEPTICS (anti, against, septikos, causing putrefaction) are substances which prevent or arrest putrefaction and analogous fermentive changes. It has been proved that Putrefaction (q. v.), fermentation of grape-juice (vinous fermentation), of milk, (lactic fermentation), and many, though probably not all other fermentations, depend upon the presence of microscopic vegetable organisms (see GERM THEORY). To prevent these processes, then, it is necessary either (1) to exclude these organisms altogether ; (2) to interfere with conditions which permit of their development; or (3) to destroy their vitality.

(1) These organisms, or their germs, are present in ordinary air; but it has been shown by Pasteur, Tyndall, Lister, Roberts, and others, that if air be filtered through cotton wool, or (if moving slowly) through a fine bent tube, it may be allowed to come in contact with putrescible substances, if these themselves contain no living organisms or germs, without causing putrefaction. This method, however, has had no important practical applications.

(2) Their growth may be arrested (a) by a low temperature. Thus large quantities of fresh meat are imported from America, and even Australia and New Zealand, in chambers cooled to near the freezing-point. Carcases of the long extinct mammoth, with the flesh still present, have been found in the ice-cliffs of Siberia. The longer time that meat, milk, &c., keep in cold than in hot weather is familiar. (b) By absence of moisture. Thus, if the contents of an egg be thrown out on a plate, and thoroughly dried in an oven, the whole becomes of a hard, horny consistence, and may be kept in this state for years. If soaked in water, it will soon begin to putrefy. In the same way meat may be kept fresh by thoroughly drying it. The preservation of fruits, &c., in strong syrup is an example of a similar action.

(3) The vitality of these organisms may be destroyed (a) by heat; e.g., meat and other eatables can be preserved for an indefinite time if they are boiled and hermetically sealed while still hot in tin vessels (see PRESERVES); (&) by various chemical substances. Some of the most important are common salt and saltpeter, used in curing fish, pickling meat, &c.; alcohol, in preserving zoological specimens, vegetable essences, fruits, &c.; sulphurous acid, boracic acid, and arsenious acid; many salts, as chloride of zinc (Burnett’s solution, q. v.), permanganate of potash (Condy’s fluid, see under MANGANESE), sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver; chlorine (given off by chloride of lime), iodine, iodoform (CHI₃), glycerine, boroglyceride (C₃H₅Bo₃), eucalyptus oil, thymol, creasote, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, tannic acid, quinine, the patent preparation ’sanitas,’ charcoal (both vegetable and animal), dry mould, used in the earth-closet system (see SEWAGE EARTH-CLOSET). All these substances act directly or indirectly as poisons to the organism-which produce putrefaction, &c.; most of them are either poisonous or very unpalatable to man, and cannot therefore be used in preserving food. Many of them are, however, used in the arts to arrest the decomposition of putrescible substances; e. g., in the manufacture of size for writing-paper from scraps of hides, sulphite of soda or antichlore, containing sulphurous acid, is added; hides are preserved by salt, or, when tanned, by tannin, a compound of tannic acid; timber is found less liable to decay if charged with an antiseptic, such as sulphate of copper, chloride of zinc, corrosive sublimate, or creasote. It is placed in a steam-box, so that the air contained in its pores is replaced by steam; the whole casing is then closed tight, and allowed to cool; the steam condenses and leaves a vacuum in and around the wood. If one of these substances is then introduced, it finds its way into the innermost pores of the timber (see also WOOD-PRESERVING). ,

But next to the preservation of food, the most important purposes for which antiseptic methods and substances are used, are the prevention of infectious diseases, and the treatment of wounds.

The properties of the infectious matter of infectious disease are closely analogous to those of the organisms that lead to putrefaction, &c.; and even in cases where its organic nature has not been proved (see GERM THEORY), can be rendered inert by a proper use of A., or by exposure to a high temperature. Thus anything that has come near the patient suffering from an Infections disease, and discharges from his person, can be made harmless by carbolic acid, chloride of zinc, or some other antiseptic; his bedding is roasted in an oven at a temperature of 212° P. or more; the room where he has been treated is fumigated with chlorine or sulphurous acid; and so the disease is prevented from spreading. This is, in fact, one of the chief aims of medical practice at the present day (see disinfectants).

Many of the evil effects which follow wounds and surgical operations are due to the presence of organisms (see PYAEMIA); and the effects of their antiseptic treatment, introduced by Mr. Lister, have been marvelous (see CARBOLIC ACID.).

AMOEBA is the name of the lowest class of Infusoria (q. v.). The animal is a jelly-like mass, without definite shape, nearly uniform in texture, but having a pulsating vesicle. The A. feeds by closing around its prey, enfolding it in its own substance, and then digesting it, any undigested portion being finally protruded. See PROTEUS.

TASTE, organ and sense of. The principal seat of the sense of taste is the mucous membrane of the tongue, in which dissection reveals a cutis or chorion, a papillary structure, and an epithelium. Of the cutis, it is sufficient to remark that it is tough, but thinner and less dense than in most parts of the cutaneous surface, and that it receives the insertions of the intrinsic muscles of the tongue, which will be described when we treat of that organ generally. The papillary structure differs from that of the skin in not being concealed under the epithelium, but in projecting from the surface like the villi of the digestive canal, and it thus gives to the tongue its well-known roughness. The Epithelium (q. v.) is of the scaly variety, as on the skin, but is much thinner on the tongue than on the skin. It is most dense about the middle of the upper surface of the tongue, and it is here that, in disordered digestion, there is the chief accumulation of fur, which in reality is simply a depraved and over-abundant formation of epithelium. The papillæ on the surface of the tongue are either simple or compound. The former, which closely resemble those on the skin, are scattered over the whole surface of the tongue in parts where the others do not exist, and they likewise participate in the formation of the compound papillæ, which, from their forms, are respectively termed (1) the circumvallate or calyciform, (2) the fungiform, and (3) the conical or filiform.

The circumvallate papillæ are not more than eight or ten in number, and are situated in the form of a V at the base of the tongue. Their function seems to be to secrete mucus, as well as to take part in the act of tasting. They consist of ‘ a central flattened projection of the mucous membrane of a circular figure, and from 1/20th to 1/12th of an inch wide, surrounded by a tumid ring of about the same elevation.’—Todd and Bowman, Physiological Anatomy and Physiology of Man, 3d ed. vol. i. p. 437. They are shown in the figure of the surface of the tongue given in the article on that organ.

The fungiform papillæ are scattered over the surface in front of the circumvallate papillæ, and about the sides and apex. They are usually narrower at the base than at the apex, where they are about 1/30th of an inch in diameter. They are covered with simple or secondary papillæ, and their investing epithelium is so thin that the blood circulating in them gives them a red color, which is not seen in the conical papillæ amongst which

they are distributed. They contain nerves terminating in loops. The shape of the conical or filiform papillæ is indicated by their names; and even if they take little part in the sense of taste directly, it is convenient to describe them here. Their average length is about 1/10th of an inch. The structure of these papillæ will be better understood from the accompanying diagrams than from any verbal description. They terminate in long pointed processes, which are bathed by the mucus of the mouth, and are capable of moving in any direction, although they are generally inclined backwards.

Some of the stiffer of these epithelial processes enclose minute hairs, of which several forms are depicted by Messrs. Todd and Bowman, from whose Physiological Anatomy all the figures in this article are borrowed. These authors surmise, on structural grounds, that the filiform papillæ ‘ can scarcely share in the reception of impressions which depend on the contact of the sapid material with the papillary tissue.

The comparative thickness of their protective covering, the stiffness and brushlike arrangement of their filamentary productions, their greater development in that portion of the dorsum of the tongue which is chiefly employed in the movements of mastication, all evince the subservience of these papillæ to the latter function rather than to that of taste; and it is evident that their isolation and partial mobility on one another must render the delicate touch with which they are endowed more available in directing the muscular actions of the organ. The almost manual dexterity of the tongue in dealing with minute particles of food is probably provided for, as far as sensibility conduces to it, in the structure and arrangement of these papillæ.’—Phys. Anat. and Phys. of Man, vol. i. p. 441. Notwithstanding the difference in their outward form and mode of arrangement, the simple papillæ, which have been detected by Todd and Bowman as scattered over the whole dorsum of the tongue (although concealed under the common sheet of epithelium), and those clothing the circumvallate and fungiform papillæ, do not seem to present any structural difference; and their epithelium, which is very thin, readily permits the transudation of sapid substances dissolved in the mucus of the mouth. With regard to the use of the singular configuration of the circumvallate and fungiform papillæ, ‘ it may be conjectured that the fissures and recesses about their bases are designed to arrest on their passage small portions of the fluids in which the sapid materials are dissolved, and thus to detain them in contact with the most sensitive parts of the gustatory membrane.’ —Op. cit-, p. 441.

There has been much discussion regarding the precise seat of the sense of taste and the true nerves of taste. Although the surface of the tongue is the special seat of gustative sensibility in man, the sense of taste is by no means restricted to that organ, being diffused, in a less degree, over the soft palate, the arches of the palate, and the fauces. Moreover, the gustative sensibility varies on different parts of the surface of the tongue. It is generally allowed that acute taste ‘ resides at the base of the tongue, over a region of which the circumvallate papillæ may be taken as the center, and also on the sides near the base. These parts are supplied solely by the glossal twigs of the glosso-pharyngeal nerves. Some writers, amongst whom are Valentin and Wagner, believe the middle and anterior parts of the dorsum of the tongue to be usually incapable of appreciating flavor; while numerous others hold the contrary opinion, with which our own careful and repeated experiments, on other persons as well as ourselves, quite accord. Sour, sweet, and bitter substances applied to the sides, and especially to the tip of the protruded tongue, we find to be at once distinguished; though, when placed on the middle of the dorsal region, they make little or no impression till pressed against the roof of the mouth. This region of the tongue is supplied almost solely by the lingual branch of the fifth nerve. We conclude generally, with regard to the tongue, that the whole dorsal surface possesses taste, but especially the circumferential parts, viz., the base, sides, and apex.’—Op. cit., pp. 442, 443. The investigations of Messrs. Todd and Bowman further show that the soft palate and its arches are endowed with taste in some persons, but not universally, while they got no evidence in any case of gustative sensibility on the pharynx, gums, or elsewhere. The soft palate and its arches are supplied by palatine brandies from Meckel’s ganglion, and sparingly by the glosso-pharyngeal nerves. Prom (1) the evidence afforded by the anatomical distribution of the nerves to parts enjoying the sense of taste, (2) the evidence of experiments, in which the various nerves of the tongue were divided, and (3) the evidence afforded by disease, it may be safely inferred that the glosso-pharyngeal and the lingual branches of the fifth pair of nerves respectively participate in the sense of taste; and there is also reason to attribute a share to the palatine branches of the fifth.

Impressions of taste may be produced by a mechanical or chemical excitement of the gustatory nerves. A quick light tap of the finger on the tip of the tongue causes a taste, sometimes acid, sometimes saline, which lasts for several seconds; and galvanism acts similarly. If the surface of the tongue, near the root, be touched with a clean dry glass rod, or a drop of distilled water be placed upon it, a slightly bitterish sensation is produced; and if the pressure be continued, a feeling of nausea ensues. If a small current of cold air be directed against the tongue, it excites a cool saline taste like that of saltpetre. From the experiments of E. H. Weber, it appears that one of the conditions requisite fertile due exercise of the sense of taste is a temperature not departing far on either side from the natural standard. Thus, if the tongue be immersed for a minute in water at a temperature of 125°, or in iced water, the taste of sugar, &c., is no longer perceived. In order that sapid bodies should cause taste, it is necessary that they should be dissolved, and made to permeate the tissue of the papillæ, so as to come in contact with their nerves. This is proved by the two following facts: 1st, that every substance, whether solid, fluid, or gaseous, which possesses a distinct taste, is more or less soluble in the fluids of the mouth, while substances which are perfectly insoluble are only recognized by the sense of touch; and 2d, that if the most sapid substance be applied in a dry state to a dried part of the surface of the tongue, no sensation of taste is excited. Bitters and acids appear to be the most sapid bodies, since they may be diluted to a greater extent than any other known substances without ceasing to excite sensations of taste. Thus, according to Valentin, 1 part of extract of aloes, or of sulphuric acid, in 900,000 of water, and even 1 part of sulphate of quinia in 1,000,000 parts of water, may, with ease, be distinguished from perfectly pure water.

‘ The contact of a sapid substance,’ says Dr. Carpenter, ‘much more readily excites a gustative sensation when it is made to press upon the papillæ, or is moved over them. Thus there are some substances whose taste is not perceived when they are simply applied to the central part of the dorsum of the tongue, but of whose presence we are at once cognizant by pressing the tongue against the roof of the mouth. The full flavor of a sapid substance, again, is more readily perceived when it is rubbed on any part of the tongue, than when it is simply brought in contact with it, or pressed against it. Even when liquids are received into the month, their taste is most completely discriminated by causing them to move over the gustative surface : thus, the ‘ wine-taster’ takes a small quantity of the liquor in his mouth, carries it rapidly over every part of its lining membrane, and then ejects it."—Principles of Human Physiology, 6th ed. p. 621. Most sapid substances affect the nerves of smell to a greater or less degree, as they pass down the throat; and it is this compound of taste and smell that constitutes flavor. It is a common habit to hold a child’s nose when he is taking a nauseous draught, with the view, as is supposed, of deadening the taste. The efficacy of the process depends upon the exclusion of smell, and the reduction of the flavor of the medicine to its mere taste. The agreeable sensation produced by sipping good wine is due to what is termed its bouquet, or, in other words, to its flavor, or combined taste and smell. Some substances leave a taste in the mouth very different from that which they first produced. This after-taste is usually bitter; but in the case of one of the most bitter substances known, namely, tannin, it is sweet. This connection seems, in a degree, to correspond to the complementary colors in vision.

MONSOO’N (Malayan, Musim) is derived from the Arabic word Mausim, a set time or season of the year, and is applied to those winds prevailing in the Indian Ocean which blow from the southwest from April to October, and from the opposite direction, or north-east, from October to April. The existence of these winds was made known to the Greeks during the Indian expeditions of Alexander, and by this knowledge, Hippalus was emboldened to sail across the open sea to Muzeris, the emporium of Malabar. The monsoons depend, in common with all winds whether regular or irregular, on the inequality of heat at different places and the earth’s rotation on its axis; but more particularly they are occasioned by the same circumstances which produce the trade-winds and the land and sea breezes, being, in fact, the combined effect of these two sets of causes.

If the equatorial regions of the earth were entirely covered with water, the trade-winds (see TRADE-WINDS)would blow constantly from the north-east in the north, and from the south-east in the south of the torrid zone, with a belt of variable winds and calms interposed; the whole system, following the sun’s course, moving northward from December to June, and southward from June to December. But, especially in the eastern hemisphere, large tracts of land stretch into the tropics, and give rise to the extensive atmospheric disturbances for which those parts of the earth are so remarkable. During the summer half of the year, the north of Africa and the south of Asia are heated to a higher degree than the Indian Ocean, while Australia and South Africa are much colder. As the heated air of Southern Asia expands and rises, and the colder air from the south flows in to supply its

place, a general movement of the atmosphere of the Indian Ocean; sets in towards the north, thus giving a southerly direction to the wind; but as the air comes from those parts of the globe which revolve quicker to those which revolve more slowly, an easterly direction will be communicated to the wind; and the combination of these two directions results in the south-west monsoon, which prevails there in summer.

Since, during winter, South Asia is colder than the Indian Ocean, which, again, in its turn, is colder than South Africa, a general motion of the atmosphere sets in towards the south and west. As this is in the same direction as the ordinary trade-wind,. the effect in winter is not to change the direction, but only to increase the velocity of the trade-wind. Thus, while south of the equator, owing to the absence of sufficiently large tracts of land, the south-east trade-winds prevail throughout the year; on the-north of the equator we find the south-vest monsoon in summer; and the north-east in winter; it being only in summer and north of the equator that great changes are effected in the direction of the trade-wind.

Similar, though less strongly-marked monsoons prevail off the-coasts of Upper Guinea in Africa, and Mexico in America. The east and west direction of the shores of these countries, or the large heated surfaces to the north of the seas which wash their coasts, produce, precisely as in the case of South Asia, a southwest monsoon in summer. As might have been expected, the monsoon off the coast of Mozambique is easterly, and that off the coast of West Australia north-westerly. The trade-winds also suffer considerable change in their direction on the coasts of Brazil, Peru, Lower Guinea, &c. These, though sometimes considered monsoons, are not truly such, for they do not change their directions periodically, so as to be opposite to each other, like true monsoons, but only veer through a few points of the compass. For a fuller account of these partial deflections, see TRADE-WINDS.

In April, the north-east monsoon changes into the south-west; and in October, the south-west into the north-east. These times depending on the course of the sun, and consequently varying" with the latitude, are called the breaking up of the monsoons, "and are generally accompanied by variable winds, by intervals of calm, and by furious tempests and hurricanes.

Monsoons, when compared with the trade-winds, will be found to play a most beneficial and important part in the economy of the-globe. Their greater velocity, and the periodical changes which take place in their direction, secure increased facility of commercial intercourse between different countries. But the full benefits following in their train are not seen unless they be considered in their relation to the rainfall of Southern Asia. Indeed, the fertility of the greater part of this fine region is entirely due to the monsoons; for if the north-east trade-wind had prevailed there throughout the year, Central and Western India, and many other places, would only have been scorched and barren saharas. The rainfall of India depends entirely on the monsoons. The coast of Malabar has its rainy season during the south-west monsoon,. which brings thither the vapors of the ocean. On the Coromandel coast, on the other hand, it is the north-east monsoon which-brings the rain from the Bay of Bengal. The two coasts of Hindustan have therefore their seasons reversed, the dry season of the one corresponding with the wet season of the other.

SMITHSO’NIAN INSTITUTE, at Washington, District of Columbia, U. S., was organized by act of Congress in 1846, in accordance with the will of James Smithson, who bequeathed the reversion of an estate amounting to 515,169 dollars to the United States of America, to be devoted to ‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.’ He was an Englishman, a natural son of Hugh, third Duke of Northumberland, and Mrs. Elizabeth Macie, a niece of Charles, Duke of Somerset. He devoted his life to scientific pursuits, especially to chemistry, and died at Genoa in 1829. The Institute is governed by regents appointed by the Federal government, and has erected a spacious edifice, with museum, library, cabinets of natural history, and lecture-rooms, which occupies a prominent situation at Washington, the capital of the United States. It receives copies of all copyright books, and exchanges with other countries, and its museum is enriched with the gatherings of national exploring expeditions. A portion of its funds is devoted to scientific researches, and the publication of works too expensive for private enterprise. There are departments of Astronomy, Ethnology, Meteorology, and Terrestrial Magnetism. See James Smithson and his Bequest, by Rhees (1881). Among the publications issued are the quarto volumes of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, distributed gratis to libraries; Annual Reports, and Miscellaneous Collections. The courses of public lectures by eminent scientific men are among the attractions of the American capital.