Vickipedia

POUND, in English -Law, means an enclosure, or which then was generally one in every parish, or at least every manor, ii Which stray cattle were put and detained until the damage done by them was paid for. Whenever a stranger’s or neighbor’s cattle trespass on another’s lands, the latter can seize them, am take them to the pound, or impound them, as it is called, damage feasant, and can keep them there till the expenses are repaid There was a distinction between pound overt, or common. pound, and pound covert, or close pound; in the former case, the owner of the beasts could go and feed and water his cattle while impounded, and it was his duty to do so; but not in the latter case. Now, it is compulsory for the impounder, in all cases, to supply the cattle with food, otherwise he incurs a penalty; and if impounded cattle are not sufficiently fed, a stranger who feeds them may not only trespass on lands to do so, but can recover the costs from the owner of the beasts, This was formerly an important head of law, and it is not obsolete, for the power to impound stray cattle still exists, though common pounds are disappearing-, for, in point of law, they art not necessary, since the impounder can put the cattle in his own stable or field.

SOCIAL SCIENCE, a name that has of late years been given to the study of all that relates to the social improvement of the community. A society, called ‘The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science,’ was first organized at a meeting which was held under Lord Brougham’s auspices in July 1857, to consider the best means of uniting together all those interested in social improvement. The annual meetings have been held each year at a different place. The Association as now constituted comprises five sections—1. Jurisprudence and Amendment of the Law (subjection, Repression of Crime); 2. Education; 3. Health; 4. Economy and Trade; 5. Art. The Association aims at promoting improvement in all matters falling within these departments, by means of bringing together, for free discussion, societies and individuals interested in social problems.

sociology is the somewhat barbarous name that has of late been used to denote the study of the origin, organization, and development of human society.

SOCIALISM, the name given to a class of opinions opposed to the present organization of society, and which seeks to introduce a new distribution of property and labor, in which organized cooperation rather than competition should be the dominating principle, under the conviction that the happiness of the race, and especially of the classes without capital, would be benefited thereby. Historically considered, Socialism, like many of the significant phenomena of our age, is a product of the French Revolution. That terrible outburst of popular discontent is most properly regarded as an anarchic attack on the social system that had its roots in the feudalism of the middle ages. The furious hatred of the court and the aristocracy, the passionate love of the ‘ people,’ of ‘ humanity,’ of ‘ liberty,’ though called forth by special circumstances, and never formally worked out into a theory of social life, virtually contained in themselves the germs of all later proposed organizations. In the middle ages, the right of freely and fully enjoying life, property, and political independence was limited to a favored few; while the great masses were condemned to dumb servitude, and a perpetual minority. Even the industrial population did not recognize the Socialistic idea. The members of the different guilds or fraternities claimed exclusive right to exercise certain branches of industry, and probably the great majority of the inhabitants of a town remained in a disregarded and dependent state. Amid such social conditions, resting, as they did, on a belief in the necessity of different distinct ranks, the free action of individual life, and even the vital progress of the whole community, became well-nigh impossible.

We have not space here to trace the course of the various minor reforms that weakened the authority of the medieval theory of life; but we must not omit to notice the speculations of the political philosophers of the 18th c. in France, England, and Germany, as operating powerfully in favor of a new social system, in which the idea of humanity (assuming, at the French Revolution, as we have observed, the concrete form of the ‘ people ‘) stands out prominently. Nevertheless, the first shape that the modern spirit of industry took, was not Socialistic, in the strict and proper sense of the term: it was rather individualistic, and found, as it still finds—for it is yet the prevailing theory—its natural expression in such proverbs as, ‘ A fair field, and no favor;’ ‘ Everyone for himself, and God for us all.’ But still, even this lawless individualism is to be regarded as a protest against the false class-legislation of preceding times, and as an assertion of the absolute right of each member of society to a share in the general welfare. That it has not universally commended itself to civilized mankind, as a perfect system, is demonstrated by the appearance and temporary popularity of such schemes of society as those of Owen (q. v.), Fourier (q. v.), St. Simon (q. v.), and the enthusiasm excited at intervals in different parts of Europe by the promulgation of extreme communistic opinions. See communism. It is objected to Socialism, under its various forms, that it makes human happiness too much dependent on material gratifications; that it robs man of that energy that springs from ambition; that it unphilosophically ignores an individualism and inequality to which Nature herself has given her inviolable sanction; and that, by the abolition of social rewards and punishments, it neither holds out any hope to the industrious, nor excites any apprehension among the indolent. On the other hand, we must admit that the vigorous assertion of Socialistic principles has led men to a more liberal and generous view of humanity as a whole. Moreover, it has forcibly called public attention to numerous evils that have sprung up along with the modern development of industry, for which no remedy—not even a name—had been provided; to the vital interdependence of all classes; and to the inadequacy of the individual or ‘ selfish ‘ system, as it has been called, to redress the wrongs or cure the evils that inevitably spring from its own unchecked operation. The recent spread of Socialistic opinions in Germany, taken in connection with the two attempts made on the life of the emperor, has led, in 1878, to special and stringent legislation designed to check the growth of Socialism. In 1878 it was computed that there were in Germany 75 Socialistic publications, with 135,000 regular subscribers.

RE’BUS, an enigmatical representation of a name or thing by using pictorial devices for letters, syllables, or parts of words. The term probably originates from the device speaking to the beholder non verbus sed rebus. Devices of this kind, allusive to the bearer’s name, were exceedingly common in the middle ages, particularly in England. In many instances, they were used by ecclesiastics and others who had not a right to armorial ensigns. Thus, on the rector’s lodgings at Lincoln College, Oxford, erected in the 15th c., to which Thomas Beckyngton, Bishop of Bath and Wells, liberally contributed, is carved the rebus of that prelate— a becon and tun, with T, the initial letter of his Christian name.

In Westminster Abbey, Abbot Islip’s chapel gives two forms of his rebus—one, a human eye, and a small branch or slip of a tree; the other, a man in the act of falling from a tree, and exclaiming, ‘ I slip ! ‘ Many of the monograms of the artists of the middle ages and early printers were rebuses. That of Ludger you King was the letter L inserted into a ring. A large proportion of the early coats of arms were rebuses on the names of the bearer of them, as, for example, three salmons for the name of Salmon, a lock and heart for that of Lockhart, three skenes or dirks for Skene. Family badges are also frequently of the nature of a rebus, and mottoes, as Ver non semper viret of the Vernons.

PERFE’CTIONISTS, or BIBLE COMMUNISTS, popularly known us FREE-LOVERS, or preachers of Free Love, a small American sect who are equally remarkable for the doctrines which they hold, and for the unfaltering way in which they curry them out in practice. The founder of the sect. John Humphrey Noyes, was born at Brattleborough in Vermont, 11th September 1811, and practised as a lawyer. He then studied theology at Andover and Yale, and became a Congregationalist preacher. He soon adopted new views, and lost his license to preach. The opinions of St. Paul, he held, had been completely misconceived by all the Christian churches; all our ecclesiastical organizations were accordingly blunders. He believed that Christ, on his second advent ‘ in the spirit,’ in 70 A.D., abolished the old Law, and closed the reign of sin which began with Adam; and that he lias thenceforth set up His kingdom in the hearts of all willing to accept His reign. For such persons, there was no longer an}’ law or rule of duty; neither the Mosaic code, nor the Sermon on the Mount, nor the ordinances or institutions of civil society, were binding upon them; they were a law unto themselves; they were free to do as they pleased, but—with exceptions which, however, could not invalidate an eternal truth—under the influence of the Divine Spirit which dwelt in them, they could only do that which was right.

His early efforts at establishing a church, made at New Haven, were very discouraging, but he was more successful at Putney He and his converts, men and women, with their children, put their property into a common stock; they gave up the use of prayer, all religious service, and the observance of the Sabbath; those who were married renounced their marriage ties, and a ‘ complex marriage ‘ was established between all the males and all the females of the ‘ Family.’ To get rid of the inconveniences which had been found attendant upon the exercise of Christian liberty, Noyes had set up a new principle, viz., sympathy, by which the individual will was to be corrected, which practically imposed, upon individuals the duty of deferring to the feelings and opinions of the brethren. He now taught that the Family was wiser than the individual, who might stray from the path of grace; that the individual was erring when he differed from the Family; and that the inclinations of individuals must be submitted to the opinion of the Family.

Having dispensed with law, he set up public opinion as a controlling power in its stead; and free criticism of one another by the members of the society became an important feature of his system. Quarrelling, however, broke out among the members: their differences were brought before the law courts; and when the details of the Family system became known, the people of Putney made the place too hot for the Perfectionists. Then establishment was broken up; but a portion of the Putney Family —about fifty men, as many women, and about the same number of children—soon established themselves in a new home, in the sequestered district of Oneida, in the state of New York. Among the things which first drew attention to the Putney Family was a controversy which Noyes maintained with the leaders of another society of P. established at Oberlin. The P. were divided upon the question, whether of the two leading features of their system, the profession of holiness and the right of Christian liberty, the one or the other was the more important—some were ‘ Liberty-men,’ others ‘ Holiness-men.’ Noyes took up the controversy on behalf of the latter.

At Oneida Creek, the new ‘Family ‘ purchased about 600 acres of forest-land, and proceeded to bring it under cultivation. They have made it one of the most productive estates in the Union; they have also established manufactures of various kinds; and in the course of 30 years, they have become a prosperous, and even a wealthy community of about 250 persons, who live together in a state of great harmony and contentedness. Being already sufficiently numerous, the ‘ Family ‘ has to reject frequent applications which are made for admission to membership. A similar society has been established at Wallingford. Their neighbors have become accustomed to the P. and their ways, and let them live in peace. On settling at Oneida, the controlling function of criticism was strengthened by being made more systematic; and a regard for the common good, grown strong through habit, has made persons who disavow all laws perfectly submissive to the unwritten laws of public opinion.

In the smallest, as well as in important affairs, the Perfectionist practises submission to the opinion of his brethren : in small matters, he usually gathers it by consultation with some of the older members of the body; important ones are submitted to the ‘Family’ at their evening meetings. All are busy; and they work as hard for the general interest as men do in the hope of enriching themselves. The men wear no particular garb, but usually dress like the country people around them; the women have their hair cut short, and parted down the center; abjure stays and crinoline; wear a tunic, falling to the knee, and trousers of the same material; a vest, buttoning high towards the throat; and a straw hat. The ‘ Family ‘ lias breakfast at six o’clock, dinner at twelve, and the evening-meal at six in the afternoon; the more advanced of its members abstain from animal food; they drink no beer, and only a weak home-made wine; and like most of the new American sects, they will have nothing to do with doctors. The women are allowed a good deal of influence.

While all the males and females of the ‘ Family ‘ are united by a ‘complex marriage,’ their intercourse—which, in theory, is unfettered by any law—is, in practice, subject to a good deal of regulation. Like everything else, it is subject to the opinion of the society, and certain principles have been so steadily applied to it, that they have gained the force of laws. First, there is the principle of the ascending fellowship. There should be contrast, the P. say, between those who become united in love. That there should be difference of temperament and of complexion has, they say, been well ascertained by physiologists. They hold that there should be a difference in age also, so that the young and passionate may be united to those who have, by experience, gained self-control. In virtue of this principle, the younger women fall to the older men, and the younger men to the older women. A second principle is, that there should be no exclusive attachment between individuals; a third, that persons should not be obliged to receive the attentions of those whom they do not like; and lastly, it is held indispensable that connections should be formed through the agency of a third party—because, without this, the question of their propriety might be withdrawn from criticism, and also, because this affords a lady an easy opportunity of declining.

The human heart, the P. say, is capable of loving any number of times, and any number of persons at the same time, and the more it loves the more it can love. The system of the ‘ complex marriage ‘ is therefore suitable to, while monogamy imposes a restriction upon, human nature; and they believe that marriage will be spurned by the churches as soon as they get rid of the false notion of the essential sinfulness of love. They are confident that, when they have worked out a few details, still incomplete, their system will be perfect, and that it will, before long, be imitated throughout the length and breadth of America. There are four things, according to Noyes, necessary to the organization of a true family : (1) the reconciliation of its members with God; (2) their salvation from sin; (3) recognition of the brotherhood and equality of man and woman; (4) community of labor and its fruits; and communism can only prosper when the previous conditions exist. The P. hold that for reconciliation to God and salvation from sin nothing is necessary but faith; let a man believe that he is reconciled to God, and his sins are immediately washed away.

POOR, GENERAL laws as to. The fundamental rule as to the relief of the poor was, that each parish in England and Wales is bound to maintain its own poor. For the purpose of providing the requisite machinery, overseers are required to be appointed in each parish every year on the 25th March, or within a fortnight following; and these, along with the churchwardens, who are ex officio overseers, have the duty of providing the requisite funds. See overseers. This is done by means of a poor-rate, which the churchwardens and overseers may levy on all the occupiers of land in the parish, after such rate has been confirmed by the justices. The rate specifies a certain sum in the pound which is to be levied, and the annual value of the various lands is then specified, and the amount is thus easily computed. The rate is thus a local tax on the occupier of the land, and not on the owner, unless he himself is also occupier. In all cases, the duty of raising the funds attaches to the overseers; but the actual distribution and application of them are not always in their immediate control. Owing to the mischiefs arising from the officials of each parish distributing the funds at their discretion, without uniformity of plan, a central controlling power was created in 1834, in the shape of the Poor-law Board; and authority was given to combine various parishes into one poor-law union, for the purpose of greater uniformity as well as economy. When a union is formed, the control of the expenditure is chiefly vested in the guardians of this union, who are elected by each parish, and who supervise the management of the union workhouse. They order the overseers of each parish to raise their due proportion of funds, by a contribution order issued to such overseers, who are thereon bound to levy the amount by including it in the next poor-rate. The guardians are bound to contract for the provisions, clothing, fuel, &c., supplied to the workhouse, by means of sealed tenders, unless the quantity is less than a stated amount. All the controlling powers formerly vested in the Poor-law Board are now transferred to the Local Government Board.

The principle on which relief is administered to the poor is, that the condition of the pauper should not be so comfortable as that of the lowest independent laborer; otherwise, idleness and imposture would be encouraged to an indefinite extent. The guardians profess only to relieve destitution already existing, and not to enable persons to keep off impending destitution. Hence they only supply the bare necessaries of life. They cannot, for example, advance or lend money to set up a poor person in trade. Minute regulations are contained in the consolidated poor-law orders of the Board as to the classification of paupers in the workhouse, mode of admission, diet, discipline, and out-door relief. With regard to out-door relief and able-bodied paupers, it is provided, that every able-bodied person requiring relief from any parish, shall be relieved wholly in the workhouse, together with his wife and family, if any, and if not otherwise employed. But the relief may be given out of doors in cases of sudden and urgent necessity, of sickness, accident and a few other cases. In general, relief is confined to persons actually residing in some place within the union, except in case of casual destitution, or sickness and accident. Whenever out-door relief is given to an able-bodied person, half of it is to be in the form of articles of food or fuel. Relief is given only weekly, where the pauper is not required to be received into the workhouse. No relief is to be given to able-bodied persons while they are employed for wages or hire by any person; and every able-bodied male person, if relieved out of the workhouse, shall be set to work by the guardians, and kept so employed while he continues to receive such relief. The law with regard to the relief of the poor is so far qualified, that wherever a person applies for parochial relief, if he or she has a father or grandfather, mother or grandmother, or child, who is able to maintain such pauper, then the parish officers can obtain an order from justices to compel such relative to contribute a sum towards such maintenance. So husbands or fathers of paupers are bound to contribute to such maintenance. In all cases, the pauper is relieved either in the workhouse or out of the workhouse, according to the regulations of the poor-law orders.

In some cases, the guardians or overseers may employ the poor in public works; but this is seldom done, except on occasions like the Lancashire distress. The law as to the settlement of the poor is somewhat intricate, and gives rise to much ligitation. There are various grounds on which this settlement is acquired. Thus every person has, prima facie, a settlement in the parish where he was born, until, some other is proved; and there are so many other qualifications, that it is seldom a birth-settlement is resorted to. By marriage, a woman immediately acquires the settlement of her husband, if he has one, whether the husband be an Englishman or a foreigner. If the husband has no settlement, then the wife is thrown back on her maiden settlement. Formerly, a person acquired a settlement in a parish by hiring and service, and by residence for forty days under such hiring; but since 1834, no such settlement can be acquired. If any person shall be bound an apprentice by indenture, and reside forty days under such apprenticeship, he or she acquires a settlement thereby. So whoever shall rent a tenement in a parish, and actually occupy the same, and be rated to the poor for one whole year, the rent being not less than £10, and paid by the person so actually occupying the tenement, shall acquire a settlement. So a person acquires a settlement by acquiring an estate in land, however, small in value, and residing forty days in the parish. So. if a person buy an estate, and the consideration amount to £30 at least, he shall thereby acquire a settlement. Formerly, a settlement was acquired by serving a public annual office, such as that of constable, overseer, &c.; but no settlement is now acquired on that ground. Unless a pauper has acquired a settlement on one or other of the grounds before mentioned in the parish or union where he receives relief, he is liable to be removed compulsorily to the parish where he last acquired a settlement. Certain persons, however, cannot be removed, and these are called irremovable paupers. Such are those paupers who have resided for one whole year in the parish or union in which they became destitute.

The mode of computing this one year is, however, somewhat difficult in certain cases. The expense of maintaining the pool-generally is paid out of the common fund, and not by each parish in the union. When a pauper is sought to be removed, it is necessary to take him before two justices of the peace for examination; and on proper evidence of his settlement, the justices will make the order of removal, which is an authority to the overseers to take or send the pauper to the overseers of the parish of settlement. If, however, the pauper is too ill at the time to admit of removal without danger, the justices may suspend the order of removal till lie is recovered. Whenever a pauper is to be removed the removing union is bound to give notice to the union of settlement; and it is on these occasions that so many obstinate and costly litigations take place as to which is the union of settlement. Much litigation was avoided by substituting a union for a parish as the test. The union also may appeal to the Court of Quarter-sessions against the removal order; and the Quarter-sessions may state a case for the opinion of the Court of Queen’s Bench, if any nice point of law should arise, as frequently happens.

In Scotland, there was no systematic provision for the relief of the poor until 1845. when the statute of 8th and 9th Vict. c. 83 was passed. By this statute, a central board (called the Board of Supervision) was established, which controls the parochial board of each parish or union of parishes in a manner similar to the Poor-law Board in England. A settlement can be acquired in Scotland by residence of live years. Children follow the settlement of their parents, and wives that of their husbands; and if no other settlement be proved, then the settlement of birth is liable. In Scotland, the mode of assessment differs from that in England, where only the annual value of lands and tenements can be rated in the hands of the occupier.

The parochial board had the option of three modes of assessment: 1. One half to be paid by owners, and one half by the occupiers; 2. One half to be paid by owners of lands, and the other half to be paid by all the inhabitants, according to means and substance other than lands; 3. Assessing owners of lands and other inhabitants rateably according to their means and substance. But by a later act of 24th and 25th Vict. 37, the mode of assessing means and substance is abolished. It will thus be seen that in Scotland the poor-rate can never be imposed wholly on the occupier as it, always is in England.

In Ireland, a Poor-law Act was also, in 1838, passed, and numerous amending statutes have followed, the code of laws being substantially founded on the English acts.

There are special acts of parliament regulating the conditions on which paupers are removable between England, Scotland, and Ireland respectively.

VICTORIA I., Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, daughter and only child of Edward, Duke of Kent, 4th son of George III., was born at Kensington Palace, May 24, 1819. Her mother, Victoria Mary Louisa, was 4th daughter of Francis, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and sister of Leopold, late king of the Belgians. Her first husband, the Prince of Leiningen, died in 1814; and on the 11th July 1818. she married, at Kew, the Duke of Kent. The duke died January 23, 1820, leaving his widow in charge of an infant daughter only eight months old, who had been baptized with the names of Alexandria Victoria.

The Duchess of Kent fulfilled the important duties which devolved upon her with more than maternal solicitude, and with admirable care and prudence. The infant princess, as she grew up, was taught to seek health by exercise and temperance, to acquire fearlessness even from her amusements, such as riding and sailing, and to practise a wise economy united to a discriminating charity. After a few years, the Duchess of Northumberland was associated with her mother in her nurture and education. The Princess V. became accomplished in music, drawing, and the continental languages; and acquired a knowledge of some of the sciences, particularly botany. Her father having belonged to the Whigs, her political education was naturally derived from the members of that party; and to Viscount Melbourne (q. v.); belongs the credit of having thoroughly instructed her in the principles of the British constitution. She ascended the throne of the United Kingdom 011 the demise of her uncle, William IV. (q. v.), June 20, 1837; her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, becoming king of Hanover, in virtue of the law which excludes females from that throne. By this event, the connection which had lasted for 123 years between the crowns of England and Hanover was terminated. Victoria was proclaimed June, 1837, and crowned at Westminster, June 28,1838. She found on her accession Viscount Melbourne at the head of the government; and during his premiership, and with the cordial assent of her subjects, the young queen was married at St. James’s Palace (February 10, 1840) to Prince Albert (q. v.), Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and second son of the then reigning duke.

Her Majesty has had issue—four sons and five daughters; the Princess Royal, Victoria, born November 21. 1840, married. Jan. 35, 1858, to Frederick William, now Crown Prince of Prussia, and Prince Imperial of Germany; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, heir-apparent to the throne of the United Kingdom, born Nov. 9, 1841, married, March 10, 1863, Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of Christian IX., king of Denmark; Princess Alice, born April 25, 1843, married, in 1862, Prince Frederick William of Hesse (died Dec. 14, 1878); Prince Alfred, born August 6. 1844. created Duke of Edinburgh 1866, married, Jan. 23, 1874, Marie, only daughter of the Emperor of Russia; Princess Helena, born May 25, 1840, married in 1866 to Prince Christian of Denmark; Princess Louisa, born March 18, 1848, married in 1871 to the Marquis of Lorne; Prince Arthur, born May 1, 1850, created Duke of Connaught 1874, married in 1879 Princess Louise Marguerite of Prussia; Prince Leopold, born April 7, 1853, was created Duke of Albany in 1881, and married to Princess Helena of Waldeck in 1882; Princess Beatrice, born April 14,’1857.

The changes of administration in this reign maybe traced in the articles GREAT BRITAIN, MELBOURNE, PEEL, RUSSELL, derby, aberdeen, palmerston, gladstone, disraeli. The legislative measures of greatest importance were the establishment (1840) of the penny-postage (see post-office); the Amendment of the Poor Laws (q. v.) in Scotland (1845) and Ireland (1847); the Abolition (1846) of the Corn Laws (q. v.), and (1849) of the Navigation Laws,(q. v.); the Irish Encumbered Estates Act, (see TITLE, &c.); the transfer (1858) of the Indian possessions from the East India Company to the crown (see india); the admission (1858) of Jews into the House of Commons; the Reform Act of 1867; Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869); the Irish Land Acts (1870 and 1881); the Abolition of Purchase in the Army (1871); the Elementary Education Act for England (1870), and the Scotch Education Act (1872). See NATIONAL EDUCATION. Other events which will signalize this period of British history were the formation of the Free Church (q. v.) of Scotland (1843); the discovery of the North-west Passage (q. v.) by Sir Robert M’Clure (1850); the Exhibitions (q. v.) of 1851 and 1862; the discovery of gold in Australia (q. v.) and in British Columbia; the war (1854—1856) with Russia (q. v.)iii defence of Turkey (q. v.), in which the siege of Sebastopol was the chief item; the Indian Mutiny in 1857 (see india); the Volunteer (q. v.) movement (1859); the establishment (1866) of telegraphic communication with America (see TELEGRAPH); the Abyssinian War, 1867(see theodore); the formation of the Dominion of Canada, 1867; the wars with Ashantees (1873), Zulus (1879), and Afghans (1878-80), the rising in the Transvaal; the agitations in connection with the Fenian Society (q. v.), Home Rule (q. v.), and the Land League; the passing of the Land Act (1881); and the war in Egypt (1882).

In 1848, the only disturbance in Britain was a Chartist demonstration (see chartism); while, during V.’s reign, France (q. v.) has been successively a constitutional monarchy, a republic, an empire, and again a republic. The great civil war in the United States of America (q. v.) has resulted in the extinction of slavery; the formation of the kingdom of Italy (q. v.) has been completed by the acquisition of Venetia and Rome; the unification of Germany, begun by the formation of the North German Confederation, as the result of the war between Prussia and Austria in 1866. has been consummated by the events of the Franco-Prussian War (1870—1871); and the ever formidable ‘ Eastern Question,’ raised again in 1876 by the insurrection in Herzegovina led in 1877 to war between Russia and Turkey, and to sweeping changes in the Balkan Peninsula (see turkey).

In 1876, ‘ Empress of India’ was added to the royal titles of Queen V. The premature death of the Prince-Consort (see albert) on December 14, 1861, caused the Queen to seclude herself for several years from public life. Queen V. has published two volumes—The Early Days of His Royal Highness the Prince-Consort; and Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands (1869).

‘In Queen Victoria,’ according to Macaulay, ‘her subjects have found a wiser, gentler, happier Elizabeth.’ No former monarch has so thoroughly comprehended the great truth, that the powers of the crown are held in trust for the people, and are the means, and not the end of government. This enlightened policy has entitled her to the glorious distinction of having been the most constitutional monarch this country has ever seen. Not less important and beneficial has been the example set by her Majesty and her late Consort in the practice of every domestic virtue. Their stainless lives, their unobtrusive piety, and their careful education of the royal children, have borne rich fruit in the stability of the throne, and have obtained for the royal family of England the respect and admiration of the civilized world. See Theodore Martin’s Life of the Prince Consort (vols. i.-iv. 1873-79).

The progress made by the nation in the various elements of civilization, especially in that of material prosperity, has been unparalleled (see great britain); and perhaps during no reign has a greater measure of political contentment been enjoyed.

INDI’CTION, a period or cycle of fifteen years, the origin of which is involved in obscurity. Connecting the original meaning of the word, viz., ‘the imposition of a tax,’ with its signification in chronology, several writers have propounded theories explanatory of its origin, none of which, however, are supported by a tittle of evidence. It began to be used in reckoning time, chiefly by ecclesiastical historians, during the life of Athanasius; it was afterwards adopted by the popes, who still continue to use it, and through whose influence it came to be so generally employed during the middle ages, that the dates of charters and public deeds of this era are expressed in indictions as well as in years of the Christian era. The time from which reckoning by indictions commenced is, according to some, the 15th September 312; according to the Greeks of the Lower Empire, 1st September 312; but when this method was adopted by the popes, it was ordered to be reckoned as commencing 1st January 313. The latter, which is now alone used, is called the Papal Indiction. If we reckon backwards to the commencement of the Christian era, it will be seen that 1 a.d. does not correspond to the 1st, but to the fourth year of an indiction—hence if to any given year of the Christian era 3 be added, and the sum divided by 15, the remainder will give the position of that year in an indiction—e. g., 1880 A.D. was the 8th year of an indiction.

POST-OFFICE, a place for the reception of letters, and the management of the various departments connected with their dispatch and conveyance. The name originated in the posts (from Lat. position, placed, fixed) placed at intervals along the roads of the Roman empire, where couriers were kept in readiness to bear dispatches and intelligence; but the posts of ancient times were never used for the conveyance of private correspondence. The first letter-post seems to have been established in the Hanse Towns in the early part of the 13th century.

A line of letter-posts followed, connecting Austria with Lombardy, in the reign of the Emperor Maximilian, which are said to have been organized by the princes of Thurn and Taxis; and the representatives of the same house established another line of posts from Vienna to Brussels, connecting the most distant parts of the dominions of Charles V. This family continue to the present day to hold certain rights with regard to the German postal system, their posts being entirely distinct from those established by the crown, and sometimes in rivalry to them.

In England, in early times, both public and private letters were sent by messengers, who, in the reign of Henry III., wore the royal livery. They had to provide themselves with horses until the reign of Edward I., when posts were established where horses were to be had for hire. Edward IV-, when engaged in war with Scotland, had dispatches conveyed to his camp with great speed by means of a system of relays of horses, which, however, fell into disuse on the restoration of peace. Camden mentions the office of ‘ Master of the Postes ‘ as existing in 1581, but the duties of that officer were probably connected exclusively with the supply of post-horses. The posts were meant for the conveyance of government dispatches alone, and it was only by degrees that permission was extended to private individuals to make use of them. A foreign post for the conveyance of letters between London and the continent seems to have been established by foreign merchants in the 15th c.; and certain disputes which arose between the Flemings and Italians, regarding the right of appointing a postmaster, and were referred to the privy-council, led to the institution of a ‘ chief-postmaster,’ who should have charge both of the English and the foreign post. Thomas Randolph was the first chief-postmaster of England. The first proper postal communication for private letters in England came into operation 100 years after the institution of the foreign post.

The increased intercourse between the English and Scottish capitals, brought about by King James’s accession, led to a great improvement in the system of horse-posts, but their services were still confined to the conveyance of government dispatches. That king, however, instituted a foreign post for letters going abroad from England, and conferred the office of postmaster of Eng-gland for foreign parts on ‘Mathewe de Quester the elder, and Mathewe de Quester the younger.’ This appointment was considered by Lord Stanhope, the English chief-postmaster, to interfere with his functions, and a dispute and law-plea between the heads of the two establishments was settled in 1632, after Charles I. had become king, by the retirement of Lord Stanhope, and an assignment of their office by the De Questers, under royal sanction’, to William Frizell and Thomas Witherings. In 1635, Witherings was authorized to run a post night and day between London and Edinburgh, ‘to go thither and back again in six days.’ Eight main postal lines throughout England were at the same time instituted, and the post was allowed to carry inland letters. Two years later, a monopoly of letter-carrying was established, which has been preserved in all the subsequent regulations of the post-office. The rates of postage were 2d. for a single letter for a distance less than 80 miles, 4d. up to 140 miles, 6d.. for any longer distance in England, and 8d. to any place in Scotland. An attempt, in 1649, by the Common Council of London to set up a rival post-office for inland letters, was suppressed by the House of Commons. A practice of farming the post-office revenues, which began in 1650, continued, as regards some of the by-posts, till the close of last century.

An important post-office statute was passed under the Protectorate in 1656, and re-enacted by 12 Car. II. c. 35. It ruled that there should be one general post-office and one postmaster-general for England, who was to have the horsing of all through posts and persons riding post. A tariff was established for letters, English, Scotch, Irish, and foreign, and the only non-governmental posts allowed to continue were those of the universities and the Cinque Ports.

In 1685, a penny-post was set up for the conveyance of letters and parcels between different parts of London and its suburbs. It was a private speculation, originating with one Robert Murray, an upholsterer, and assigned by him to Mr. William Docwray. When its success became apparent, it was complained of by the Duke of York, on whom the post-office revenues had been settled, 115 an encroachment on his rights; a decision of the Court of lung’s Bench adjudged it to be a part of the royal establishment, and it was thereupon annexed to the crown. In this way began the London district-post, which was improved and made a twopenny-post in 1801, and continued as a separate establishment from the general post down to 1854.

The first legislative enactment for a Scottish post-office was passed in 1695, prior to which time, the posts out of Edinburgh had been very few and irregular. About 1700, the posts between the capitals were so frequently robbed near the borders, that acts were passed both by the parliament of England and that of Scot-laud, making- robbery of the post punishable with death and confiscation. The post-office of Ireland is of later date than that of Scotland. In the time of Charles L, packets between Dublin and Chester, and between Mil ford-Haven and Waterford, conveyed government dispatches; and after the Restoration, the rate of letter-postage between London and Dublin, was fixed at 6d.

Act 3 Anne, c. 10, repealed the former post-office statutes, and put the establishment on a fresh basis. A general post-office was instituted in London for the whole British dominions, with chief offices in Edinburgh, Dublin, New York, and other places in the American colonies, and one in the Leeward Islands. The whole was placed under the control of an officer appointed under the Great Seal, called the Postmaster-general, who was empowered to appoint deputies for the chief offices. Rates higher than those formerly charged were settled for places in the British dominions, and also for letters to foreign parts. A survey of post-roads was ordered, for the ascertainment of distances. Letters brought from abroad by private ships were ordered to be handed over to the deputy-postmasters of the ports who were to pay the master a penny for each letter. A complete reconstruction of the cross-post system was effected in 1720, by Ralph Alien, postmaster of Bath, to whom the Lords of the Treasury granted a lease of the cross-posts for life : at his death, they came under the control of the postmaster-general. The rates of postage were farther raised by act 1 Geo. III. c. 25, which also gives permission for the establishment of penny-posts in other towns, as in London. The Edinburgh penny-post was instituted in 1766, by one Peter Williamson, a native of Aberdeen, whom the authorities induced to take a pension for the good-will of the concern, and merged it in the general establishment.

Mail-coaches owe their origin to Mr. John Palmer, manager of the Bath and Bristol theaters, who, in 1783, submitted to Mr. Pitt a scheme for the substitution of coaches, protected by armed guards, for the boys on horseback, who till then conveyed the mail. After much opposition from the post-office authorities his plan was adopted, and Mr. Palmer, installed at the post-office as controller-general, succeeded in perfecting his system, greatly increasing the punctuality, speed, and security of the post, and adding largely to the post-office revenue.

In 1837, a plan of post-office reform was suggested by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill, the adoption of which has not only immensely increased the utility of the post-office, but changed its whole administration. Its principal features were the adoption of a uniform and low rate of postage, a charge by weight, and prepayment. The change met with much opposition from the post-office authorities, but was eventually carried by a majority of 100 in the House of Commons, becoming law by 3 and 4 Vict. c. 96. The new system came into full operation on January 10, 1840. Previously to the change, members of parliament had the right of sending their letters free, but this privilege of franking was entirely abolished. A penny was adopted as the uniform rate for every inland letter not above half an ounce. Facilities for prepayment were afforded by the introduction of postage-stamps, and double postage was levied on letters not prepaid. Arrangements were made "for the registration of letters; and the money-order office, by a reduction of the commission charged for orders, became available to an extent which it had never bee;: before. As far back as 1792, a money-order office had been established as a medium for sailors and soldiers to transmit their savings, and its benefit had afterwards been extended to the general public; but the commission charged had been so high, that it was only employed to a very limited extent. The immediate result of the changes introduced in 1840 was an enormous increase in the amount of correspondence, arising in part from the cessation of the illicit traffic in letters, which had so largely prevailed before; but for some years there was a deficit in the post-office revenue. The reduction of postage-rates was, however, a reduction of taxation, and if the Exchequer lost revenue from one source, it gained it in other ways.

With the development of the railway system came the carriage of letters by train instead of by mail-coaches; and one novelty which arose out of this change was the adoption of traveling post-offices, forming part of the mail-train, where letters are arranged during transit, and which sometimes receive and drop the letter-bags while the train is going at full speed. The conveyance of the mails by railroad added greatly to the expenses of the post-office establishment; but, nevertheless, the former gross revenue of the post-office was exceeded in 1851, and the net revenue in 1863. According to the annual report of the postmaster-general for 1880-81, there are 912 head post-offices in the United Kingdom, 13,637 branch offices or receiving-houses, and about 13,160 road or pillar letter-boxes. Above 1176 millions of letters passed through the post-office in 1880-81—more than twice as many as in 1861, and thirteen times as many as in 1839, the last year of the dear postage. In 1880-81, the gross revenue of the post-office, exclusive of that yielded by the telegraphs was £6,733,427; the expenditure, also excluding the telegraphic service, £4,135,659; leaving a surplus of £2,597,768. The number of money orders transmitted within the United Kingdom, in the same year, was 16,329,476; the amount of money transmitted being £24,228,763. This is a decrease on previous years, probably caused by the introduction of postal orders. (See below, under Money Orders.)

The postal service of the three kingdoms is now under the immediate control of the postmaster-general, assisted by the general secretary of the post-office in London. There are also chief officers in Edinburgh and Dublin, with secretarial and other departmental staffs. The postmaster-general is a member of the privy council and sometimes a cabinet minister. He has a salary of £2500, and is the only officer connected with the department who leaves office on a change of government. The secretary is his responsible adviser, and has a salary of £2000. The receiver and accountant-general keeps account of the money received by each department, receiving remittances from branch and provincial offices, and taking charge of the payment of all salaries, pensions, and items of current expenditure.

The surveyors are the connecting link between the metropolitan and provincial offices, each postmaster, with some exceptions, being under the superintendence of the surveyor of his district. In 1881, the staff of officers employed in the post-office, including those engaged in telegraph work, was upwards of 47,000; of this number, about 12,000 were engaged solely in telegraph work, and about 11,000 were employed in Condon alone.

Act 24 Vict. c. 19 instituted a system of savings banks in connection with the post-office. The rate of interest payable to depositors is 2i per cent., calculated on complete pounds and complete months, being a halfpenny per pound month. The number of depositors at the end of 1880 was 2.184,972; the amount of their deposits in the year, £10,219,631; and the number of banks, 6233. A novel extension of this system took place in 1880. Blank forms, with twelve ruled spaces, are now issued to intending depositors, who may secure their penny savings by affixing ordinary postage-stamps to the form. When the twelve spaces are filled, the form is presented at the bank, and credit is given for a shilling.

The Savings-bank Act (1880) permits the investment of small sums in government stocks; in Consols, Reduced, or New 3 per Cents. The sums invested must not be less than £10, and must not exceed £100 in any one year; the total sum for any one investor is limited to £300. The postmaster-general is empowered to insure the lives of applicants for not less than £20 or more than £100, and also to grant immediate or deferred annuities. See post-office insurance.

Halfpenny post-cards were introduced in 1870, and in the first year 75 millions were used. The number in 1880-81 reached 122 millions. The ordinary penny stamp is now a ‘ Postage and Inland Revenue ‘ stamp, and may be used as a receipt stamp.

In 1869 the post-office acquired the existing electric telegraphs. About 30 millions of telegraphic messages were sent in the year ending March 31, 1881. Gross revenue, £1,633,884; working expenses, £1,189,425; net revenue, £444,459.

The home and foreign mail-packet service was, in the 17th and 18th centuries, in the hands of the post-office authorities, but was removed to the Board of Admiralty, under whose control it remained till 1860, when it was again restored to the post-office. Steam-vessels were first used for conveying the mail in 1821; and in 1833, mail-contracts were introduced, the first being with the Mona Steam Company to run steamers from Liverpool to Douglas in the Isle of Man. Of the home mail-packet contracts, the most important are those with the City of Dublin Steam-packet Company for conveying the Irish mails between Holyhead and Kingstown. The principal foreign contracts are for the Indian and Chinese mails, entered into with the Peninsular and Oriental Steam-navigation Company, the mails to North and South America, the West Indies, the Australian colonies, and the Cape.

The post-office statute of Queen Anne contains a prohibition repeated in subsequent acts, for any person employed in the post-office to open or detain a letter, except under a warrant from one of the principal secretaries of state. During last century, such warrants were often granted on very trivial pretences. In 1733, at Bishop Atterbury’s trial, copies of his letters, intercepted at the post-office, were produced in evidence against him; and in 1735, it appeared that an organization existed, at an immense expense, for the examination of home and foreign correspondence. In 1782, the correspondence of Lord Temple, when Lord-lieutenant of Ireland was subjected to a system of post-office espionage. In the beginning of the present century, an improvement took place in this matter, and Lord Spencer introduced the custom, in 1806, of recording the dates of all warrants granted for the opening of letters and the grounds on which they were issued.

Since 1822, the warrants have been preserved at the Home Office; and a House of Commons’ return in 1853 shows that, in the preceding ten years, only six letters were detained and opened —four in cases of felony, and two that they might be properly returned to those who claimed them. One of these cases of interference with the privacy of correspondence occurred in 1844, when Sir James Graham, as Home Secretary, issued a warrant for opening the letters of Mazzini, and caused certain information contained in them to be conveyed to the Austrian Minister, an act which involved the ministry of the day in considerable popular obloquy, and produced a wide-spread, though very groundless, distrust of the security of the ordinary correspondence of the country. See GRAHAM, SIR JAMES.

The following is a summary of the most important regulations of the British post-office, reference being made for the minute details to the British Postal Guide.

Inland Letters.—The rates of postage, prepaid, are1d. for a letter weighing not more than 1 oz.; 1 1/2 d. when the weight is 1 oz. and not above 2 oz.; 2d. 2 oz. and not above 4 oz.; 2 1/2 d. 4 oz. and not above 6 oz.; 3d. 6 oz. and not above 8 oz.; 3 1/2 d. 8 oz. and not above 10 oz.; 4 d. 10 oz. and not above 12 oz. A letter exceeding 12 oz. is charged 1d. per oz.; e.g., for a letter weighing 16 oz. the postage is 16d. A letter posted unpaid is charged double postage. Letters insufficiently stamped are charged double the deficiency on delivery. Redirected letters are charged additional postage at the prepaid rate; and this may either be prepaid, or charged on delivery. Letters for officers, soldiers, or seamen on actual service abroad, are redirected without charge, also with several restrictions, at home. By paying 1/2 d. extra postage, letters may now be posted in the boxes attached to mail trains, in which sorting is performed.

No inland letter can be conveyed by post which is more than one foot six inches in length, nine inches in width, and six inches in depth, unless sent to or from one of the government offices.

Registration.—The registration fee of 2d—in addition to the ordinary postage—prepaid in stamps, secures careful treatment to any letter, newspaper, or book-packet, and renders its transmission more secure, by enabling it to be traced from its receipt to its delivery. Letters may be registered for a fee of 2d. to any place in the British colonies, and for various rates of charge to different foreign countries. Letters containing coin, if not registered, are treated as if they were, and charged on delivery with a registration fee of eightpence; the same fee is charged on letters marked ‘Registered’ and posted in the usual way instead of being-given to a post-office servant. If lost, the contents are only made good to the extent of £2.

Foreign and Colonial Letters-—For the rates payable, reference is made to the British Postal Guide. Prepayment must be wholly in stamps. In some cases, prepayment is optional; in others, compulsory; and to some countries the whole postage cannot be prepaid. A letter posted unpaid or partially paid, directed to go by a route by which prepayment is compulsory, is returned to the writer, unless there be another route to send it by, by which prepayment is not required. Letters, however, for Australia and New Zealand, if prepaid as much as one rate, are forwarded, charged with the deficient postage and an additional rate. Letters for the Cape of Natal posted unpaid (wholly or in part), in addition to the deficient postage are charged 6d. each. Those for St. Helena and British West Indies, not included in the General Postal Union, are charged 1s. each in addition to the deficient postage. No letter for any foreign country may be above two feet in length or one feet in width or depth.

Letters to be sent by private ship must be so marked; their postage varies from 21/2 d. upwards for half an ounce, and prepayment is obligatory in some cases, and in others not.

Letters to passengers on board the American or Mediterranean packets must be registered, and must be addressed to the care of the commander of the packet.

The post-office monopoly is applicable to letters only; and it does not include letters sent specially by private messenger, or letters concerning goods or merchandize sent to be delivered along with the goods which they concern.

Newspapers.—In 1870, the impressed duty stamp was abolished; and now, any newspaper published at intervals not exceeding seven days, and on a sheet or sheets unstitched, and registered at the General Post-office, is transmissible by post within the United Kingdom at a postage of one halfpenny for each transmission. The postage must be prepaid, either by an adhesive stamp or by a stamped wrapper. A packet of newspapers is not chargeable at a higher rate than a book packet—namely, one halfpenny for every 2 oz. or fraction of 2 oz. The cover, if there is one, must be open at both ends, and such that the packet can be easily removed for examination. There must be no writing outside or inside, except the address of the person to whom the newspaper is sent. Registration for inland circulation includes registration for transmission abroad. Newspapers for foreign countries and the colonies are subject to the same general regulations as for inland circulation, except that they may be published at intervals of thirty-one days, and printed on sheets stitched together. They must be posted within eight days from the day of publication.

Parliamentary Proceedings.—The printed proceedings of parliament, with the words ‘Parliamentary Proceedings’ written or printed on the cover, may circulate throughout the United Kingdom at the rate of one halfpenny for every 2 oz. or fraction of 2 oz. Prepayment is optional. Parliamentary notices may be forwarded by post under certain regulations and restrictions, the postage chargeable, and a registration fee of 60!., being payable in stamps.

Book-post.—This branch of the post-office was first established in 1848, and further improved by regulations issued in 1855,1857, and 1870. The postage is now one halfpenny for every 2 oz. or fraction of that weight. A book-packet may contain books, paper, or parchment, whether plain, or written, or printed upon (provided there be nothing of the nature of a letter); maps, prints, &c. (but not in glass frames). Circulars, when wholly or in great part printed or lithographed, may also be sent by book-post, singly or in packets. The postage must be pre-paid by adhesive stamps, or by a stamped wrapper; if not prepaid, the packet is charged double the book-postage; if not sufficiently prepaid, it will be charged double the deficiency. If there is a cover, it must be open at the ends. No book-packet must exceed 5 lbs. in weight; it must not be over 1 foot 6 inches in length by 9 inches in width and 6 inches in depth; nor must it contain anything sealed against inspection. An entry on the first page of the book stating who sends it, or to whom it is given, is allowed. In order to secure the return of book-packets that cannot be delivered it is recommended to have the names and addresses of the senders written or printed outside. No writing in the way of a letter or communication is allowed; if any such communication be found within a packet, the whole will be charged the unpaid letter rate, and forwarded. The book-post has been extended to the colonies and to foreign countries at valuing rates.

Colonial and Foreign Pattern and Sample Post.—This post extends to most colonies and foreign countries, at rates corresponding with those for book-packets. It is restricted to bona-fide trade patterns or samples of merchandise. Goods sent for sale, or in execution of an order (however small the quantity may be), or any articles sent by one private party to another which are not actually patterns or samples, are not admissible. The patterns are to be sent in covers open at the ends or sides; but samples of articles which cannot be placed in open covers, may be inclosed in transparent bags. Such articles as knives, scissors, &c., may be sent to places abroad, except France and the French colonies, provided they are so packed as to do no damage.

Post-cards, bearing a halfpenny impressed stamp, are transmissible within the United Kingdom. On the stamped side, the address alone is to be written. On the other side, any communication may be written or printed. .Reply post-cards, which were introduced in 1882, allow the sender to prepay the reply. Foreign post-cards cost Id. and lid.

The Parcels Post Act, passed in 1882. provides for the carriage of small parcels within the United Kingdom at the following rates: For parcels not exceeding 1 lb.—3d.; 3 lbs.—6d.; 5 lbs. —9d.; 7 lbs.—1s.

Money Orders.—Inland money orders may be obtained at any of the post-offices of the United Kingdom, on payment of the following commission : For sums under 10s.—2d.; for 10s. and under £2—3d.; for £2 and under £3—4d.; for £3 and under £4— 5d.; and so on, up to £9 and under £10—11d.; £10—1s. Money orders may now be issued to the colonies, to most European countries, the United States, Egypt, &c., the commission being about three to four times the above rate. In applying for a money order, the surname and initial, at least, of one Christian name of the sender, and the name of the person to whom payable, must be given; but the designation of a firm will suffice, and the name of the person to whom the order is payable may be withheld, if it is to be paid through a bank.

A money order in the United Kingdom becomes void if not presented for payment before the end of the twelfth calendar month after that in which it was issued. Orders drawn on France or Italy must be paid within three months. The lower rates for inland money orders entail a loss on each transaction. Provision was further made for the issue of ten classes of ‘ postal notes ‘ for small fixed sums, under Mr. Fawcett’s Post-office (Money Orders) Bill of 1880.

Any person with a fixed residence may have a private box at the post-office on paying an appointed fee; but in no other case can a resident have his letters addressed to the post-office. See poste restante.

Letters containing anything liable to injure the contents of the mail-bag are not allowed to be sent by post. This comprehends glass in any form, vessels containing liquids, meat, fruit, explosives, sharp instruments, &c.

Telegrams.—The charge for the transmission of messages by telegraph throughout the United Kingdom is 1s. for the first twenty words, and 3d. for each additional five words, or part of five words. Press telegrams cost 1s. for 100 words by day, and for 75 by night.

The Universal Postal Union-—In October, 1874, a conference at Berne resulted in the establishment of the ‘ General Postal Union,’ embracing the European countries, with Egypt and the United Sates, and resulting in a great simplification of international postal arrangements. This was followed in June 1878 by the treaty of Paris, signed or subsequently adhered to by all the parties to the former treaty, with the addition of British India, the colonies of France, Spain, Holland, and Portugal, various British colonies, Persia, Japan, Liberia, Brazil, Peru, Mexico, &c., the new convention receiving the name of the ‘ Universal Postal Union.’ Under this important treaty, all the consenting nations were declared to be ‘a single postal territory for the reciprocal exchange of correspondence.’ Equal rates, weights, and rules are established, and considerable reductions of postage have followed its adoption. Except in the case of lengthy sea transit, a uniform rate of 25 centimes (2 1/2 d.) is adopted for a letter of 15 grammes (1/2 oz.); of ten centimes (1d.) for post-cards; of five centimes (1d.) for packets of print, &c., of 50 grammes (2 oz.); and of 25 centimes (2 1/2 d.) for registration in Europe, and 50 centimes (5d.) for registration beyond Europe.—See Her Majesty’s Mails, by Lewins; the Postmaster-general’s Annual Reports; Martin’s Statesman’s ‘ Year Book; Life of Sir Rowland Hill; and the History of Penny Postage, by Sir R. Hill and a. B. Hill (1880).

ABSENTEE’, a term applied, by way of reproach, to capitalists who derive their income from one country, and spend it in another. It has been especially used in discussions on the social condition of Ireland. As long as Ireland had its own parliament, a great portion of the large landed proprietors lived chiefly in the country during summer, and passed their winters in Dublin; thus spending a large portion of their incomes among their dependents, or at least among their countrymen. The Union changed the habits of the Irish nobility and gentry, who were attracted to London as the political metropolis, or were induced, by the disturbed condition of Ireland, to choose residences on the continent. Such Irish landed proprietors were styled ‘ absentees;’ and it was argued that their conduct was the great source of Irish poverty, as it drained the resources of the land, or, in other words, sent money out of Ireland. One class of political economists�among them M’Culloch�maintain that, economically viewed, absenteeism has no injurious effect on the country from which the absentee draws his revenue. An Irish landlord living in France, it is argued, receives his remittances of rent, not in bullion, but in bills of exchange; and bills of exchange represent, in the end, the value of British commodities imported into France. The remittance could not be made unless goods to the same amount were also drawn from Britain. Thus, although the landlord may consume, for the most part, French productions, he causes, indirectly, a demand for as much of British productions; and his income goes, in the end, to pay for them. His residence abroad, then, does no harm to the industry and resources of the country at large, although it is admitted that it may be felt as an evil in a particular locality. The truth of this doctrine, however, in its full extent, is disputed. Among other objections to it, it is argued, that whatever may be true of the amount actually consumed, all the tradesmen and others who supply the absentee’s wants have their profits, and have thus the means of accumulating; and that these accumulations which are thus added to the national wealth of a foreign country, would have been added to the wealth of his native country had he been living at home. The result of the controversy would seem to be, that absenteeism does, to some extent, act injuriously on the wealth of a country, though it is not true that the whole revenues thus spent are so much clear loss, there being several indirect compensations.�On the evil of absenteeism, in a moral point of view, all are agreed; especially in a country in the condition of Ireland, where nearly the whole wealth is in the hands of extensive landed proprietors, with almost no middle class.

CHRISTMAS, the day on which the nativity of the Saviour is observed. The institution of this festival is attributed by the spurious Decretals to Telesphorus, who flourished in the reign of Antoninus Pius (138�161 a.d.), but the first certain traces of it are found about the time of the Emperor Commodus (180�192 A.D.). In the reign of Diocletian (284�305 A.D.), while that Buler was keeping court at Nicomedia, he learned that a multitude of Christians were assembled in the city to celebrate the birthday of Jesus, and having ordered the church-doors to be closed, he set fire to the building, and all the worshipers perished in the names. It does not appear, however, that there was any uniformity in the period of observing the nativity among the early churches; some held the festival in the mouth of May or April, others in January. It is, nevertheless, almost certain that the 25th of December cannot be the nativity of the Saviour, for it is then the height of the rainy season in Judea, and shepherds could hardly be watching their flocks by night in the plains.

C. not only became the parent of many later festivals, such as those of the Virgin, but especially from the 5th to the 8th c., gathered round it, as it were, several other festivals, partly old and partly new, so that what may be termed a Christmas Cycle sprang up, which surpassed all other groups of Christian holidays in the manifold richness of its festal usages, and furthered, more than any other, the completion of the orderly and systematic distribution of church festivals over the whole year. Not casually or arbitrarily was the festival of the Nativity celebrated on the 25th of December.

Among the causes that co-operated in fixing this period as the proper one, perhaps the most powerful was, that almost all the heathen nations regarded the winter-solstice as a most important point of the year, as the beginning of the renewed life and activity of the powers of nature, and of the gods, who were originally merely the symbolical personifications of these. In more northerly countries, this fact must have made itself peculiarly palpable �hence the Celts and Germans, from the oldest times, celebrated the season with the greatest festivities. At the winter-solstice, the Germans held their great Yule-feast (see yule), in commemoration of the return of the fiery sun-wheel; and believed that, during the twelve nights reaching from the 25th December to the 6th of January, they could trace the personal movements and interferences on earth- of other great deities, Odin, Berchta, &c. Many of the beliefs and usages of the old Germans, and also of the Romans, relating to this matter, passed over from heathenism to Christianity, and have partly survived to the present day. But the church also sought to combat and banish�and it was to a large extent successful�the deep-rooted heathen feeling, by adding� for the purification of the heathen customs and feasts which it retained�its grandly devised liturgy, besides dramatic representations of the birth of Christ and the first events of his life. Hence sprang the so-called ‘ Manger-songs,’ and a multitude of C. carols, as well as C. dramas, which, at certain times and places, degenerated into farces or Fools’ Feasts (q. v.). Hence also originated, at a later period, the Christ-trees, or C.-trees, adorned with lights and gifts, the custom of reciprocal presents, and of special C. meats and dishes, such as C. cakes, dumplings, &c. Of late it has become usual for friends to forward to one another, by post, gaily illuminated Christmas cards, bearing Christmas greetings.

In the Roman Catholic Church, three masses are performed C.�one at midnight, one at daybreak, and one in the morning. The day is also celebrated by the Anglo-Catholic Church� psalms are sung, a special preface is made in the Communion Service, and the Athanasian Creed is said or sung. The Lutheran Church, on the continent, likewise observes C.; but the Presbyterian churches in Scotland, and the whole of the English dissenters, reject it, in its religious aspect, as a ‘ human invention,’ is ’savoring of papistical will-worship,’ although, in England dissenters as well as churchmen keep it as a social holiday, on which there is a complete cessation from all business. But within the last hundred years, the festivities once appropriate to C. have Hindi fallen off. These at one time lasted with more or less brilliancy till Candlemas, and with great spirit till Twelfth-day ; but now a meeting in the evening, composed, when possible, of the various branches and members of a family, is all that distinguishes the day above others.

ABSTINENCE SOCIETIES, associations for the promotion of abstinence from all kinds of alcoholic liquors, and the members of which usually receive the designation of abstainers or teetotalers� this last phrase inferring an utter and uncompromising abstinence; or at least that the only exception shall be for sacramental and medical purposes. Abstainers usually take a pledge or vow to that effect; the ground of their abstinence from alcoholic liquors being that they are injurious to, or at least no way promotive of, health, and that from the great social evils of intemperance it is important to set an example of entire abstinence. A. S. exist in great numbers in North America and the United Kingdom. In the early growth of this remarkable social movement, A. S. were called Temperance Societies, and under that head the subject will be treated in its various forms of development.

LEGION OF HONOR, an order of merit instituted under the French Republic in 1802 by the First Consul, as a recompense for military and civil services. It was ostensibly founded for the protection of republican principles and the laws of equality, and for the abolition of differences of rank in society, every social grade being equally eligible; but its real aim doubtless was, by popularizing the idea of personal distinction, to pave the way for the establishment of the Empire and of the more exclusive titles of nobility that were to accompany it. The proposal for its institution was at first violently opposed by the legislative body and the tribunate, on democratic grounds, and carried eventually by a narrow majority.

The order originally comprised three classes�Grand Officers, Commanders, and Legionaries. The class of Grand Officers was, on the coronation of Napoleon I., divided into Knights of the Grand Eagle (the highest class), and Grand Officers. On the restoration of the Bourbons, the Legion was retained, but remodelled so as to lose much of its original character, The eagle was called a cross, and the effigy of Henry IV- replaced that of Napoleon. The Knights of the Grand Eagle became Grand Crosses, the Legionaries were transformed into Knights, and the numerous educational institutions, founded by Napoleon for the children and relatives of the members of the order, were much reduced in scale. In 1837, a new military class called Officers was admitted. Under the Presidentship of Louis Napoleon, part of the property of Louis Philippe, which had been restored to the state, was set apart as an. endowment for the Legion, and new regulations were made regarding the pensions of the different classes. The original form of decoration was reintroduced, which under the second Empire was somewhat modified. As worn then, it consisted of a cross of ten points of white enamel edged with gold ; the points connected with a wreath of laurel proper, and in the center, within an azure circle charged with the words ‘ Napoleon III., Empereur des Francais,’ was a head of the emperor. The cross is ensigned by the imperial crown of France, and worn attached to a red ribbon. The Grand Officers also wore on the right breast a silver star charged with the imperial eagle. The same star was worn on the left breast by the Knights Grand Cross, and their cross was attached to a broad red ribbon which passes over the right shoulder.

The vast numbers of this order, and the insignificance of many of the persons on whom it has been conferred, have detracted much from its value. The number of members in 1872 was 69,179; but the law passed in that year, that only one new member should be added for every two vacancies, reduced the membership in the next five years (1877) to 59,208. The revenue of the College of the Legion has been augmented by the addition of property belonging to Louis Philippe. Out of this fund pensions are paid to those members of the order who have served in the army or navy; the civilian members receive no pension. These pensions amounted in 1877 to the sum of �454,554. By the existing statutes, candidates in time of peace must have served in some military or civil capacity for twenty years; exploits in the field or severe wounds constitute a claim in time of war. Two distributions take place in the year. The nomination of military persons takes place on parade, and of civil in the courts of justice. No ignoble punishment can be inflicted on a member of the order so long as he belongs to it. To rise to a superior rank, it is indispensable, at least for natives of France, to have passed through the inferior grades.

PRIVY-CHAMBER, GENTLEMEN OF THE, officers of the royal household of England, instituted by King Henry VII., to attend on the king and queen at court, and in their progresses, diversions, &c. For a number of years past, no services have been required of these officers, and no salary or fee is attached to the office. There are also four Gentlemen Ushers of the Privy-chamber, who are in regular attendance on the sovereign, waiting in the Presence-chamber, and attending on the royal person; they have the honor of conducting her Majesty, in the absence of the higher officers.